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Topic Review
The Alter Retina
Alternative splicing of mRNA is an essential mechanism to regulate and increase the diversity of the transcriptome and proteome. Alternative splicing frequently occurs in a tissue- or time-specific manner, contributing to differential gene expression between cell types during development. Neural tissues present extremely complex splicing programs and display the highest number of alternative splicing events. As an extension of the central nervous system, the retina constitutes an excellent system to illustrate the high diversity of neural transcripts. The retina expresses retinal specific splicing factors and produces a large number of alternative transcripts, including exclusive tissue-specific exons, which require an exquisite regulation. In fact, a current challenge in the genetic diagnosis of inherited retinal diseases stems from the lack of information regarding alternative splicing of retinal genes, as a considerable percentage of mutations alter splicing or the relative production of alternative transcripts. Modulation of alternative splicing in the retina is also instrumental in the design of novel therapeutic approaches for retinal dystrophies, since it enables precision medicine for specific mutations.
  • 1.1K
  • 22 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Non-Invasive Imaging and Proliferative Diabetic Retinopathy
Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a leading cause of vision impairment in people aged 20–74 years. There is a trend of moving away from invasive (e.g., fundus fluorescein angiography) to non-invasive (e.g., wide-field optical coherence tomography (OCT), OCT angiography and colour fundus photography) imaging modalities to allow for more objective assessments that can be readily repeated in a time-efficient manner without compromising patient safety. Such quantitative assessments generating large amounts of data could benefit from artificial intelligence approaches to aid clinical decision making.
  • 1.1K
  • 02 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Pathophysiology of Retinopathy of Prematurity
Retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) is a proliferative vascular ailment affecting the retina. It is the main risk factor for visual impairment and blindness in infants and young children worldwide. If left undiagnosed and untreated, it can progress to retinal detachment and severe visual impairment. Geographical variations in ROP epidemiology have emerged over recent decades, attributable to differing levels of care provided to preterm infants across countries and regions. 
  • 1.1K
  • 05 Feb 2024
Topic Review
Ocular Surface Squamous Neoplasia
Ocular surface squamous neoplasia (OSSN) encompasses a broad spectrum of neoplastic changes involving the squamous epithelium of the conjunctiva, cornea and limbus ranging from mild dysplasia, intraepithelial neoplasia (carcinoma in situ) to squamous cell carcinoma (SCC).
  • 1.1K
  • 11 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Nano-based DDS for Posterior Segment Diseases
The complex anatomy of the eye presents a major challenge in the treatment of posterior segment eye diseases, hindering the effective delivery of medications. Conventional treatments, including topical eye drops and intravitreal injections, are limited by poor bioavailability and short residence time, necessitating frequent dosing to manage the disease. Intravitreal injections can also lead to serious ocular complications. Biodegradable nano-based drug delivery systems (DDSs) have emerged as a potential solution to these limitations, offering longer residence time in ocular tissues and better penetration through ocular barriers. Furthermore, the biodegradable polymers used to create these systems are nanosized, reducing the risk of toxicity and adverse reactions.
  • 1.1K
  • 12 May 2023
Topic Review
Recent Advancements in Retinal Prosthesis Technology
Significant progress has been made in retinal prostheses, including material science, visual field size, and integration of artificial intelligence. These advancements reflect innovation and provide insights into the future of retinal prostheses. Retinal prostheses utilize inorganic and organic electrodes. Smaller electrodes optimize electrical signaling, but current electrodes have physical limitations. Common metals used are iridium, gold, titanium, tin, and platinum due to their inertness, electrical properties, and biocompatibility. Recent advancements aim to improve the visual field of retinal prostheses. One such example, POLYRETINA, a foldable and photovoltaic epiretinal prosthetic, addresses the limited visual field in current technology since existing prosthetics have insufficient visual angle size (VAS) for mobility and object identification tasks. Additionally, a recent study developed a wireless photovoltaic retinal implant (PRIMA) to improve central vision in atrophic age-related macular degeneration patients without affecting peripheral vision. Retinal prostheses face challenges in effectiveness, surgical complexity, patient eligibility, long-term durability, and cost/accessibility, which is why advancements in technology, surgical techniques, and understanding of retinal physiology are needed.
  • 1.1K
  • 18 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Drug Delivery Systems for Uveitis and Neuro-Ophthalmologic Conditions
To circumvent these constraints, the development of biodegradable nano-based drug delivery systems (DDS) has gained prominence. These systems promise extended residence time in ocular tissues, improved penetration through ocular barriers, and are composed of nanosized, biodegradable polymers, thereby diminishing the risk of toxicity and adverse reactions.
  • 1.1K
  • 24 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Matrix Metalloproteinases and Glaucoma
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are enzymes that decompose extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins. MMPs are thought to play important roles in cellular processes, such as cell proliferation, differentiation, angiogenesis, migration, apoptosis, and host defense. MMPs are distributed in almost all intraocular tissues and are involved in physiological and pathological mechanisms of the eye. MMPs are also associated with glaucoma, a progressive neurodegenerative disease of the eyes. MMP activity affects intraocular pressure control and apoptosis of retinal ganglion cells, which are the pathological mechanisms of glaucoma. It also affects the risk of glaucoma development based on genetic pleomorphism. In addition, MMPs may affect the treatment outcomes of glaucoma, including the success rate of surgical treatment and side effects on the ocular surface due to glaucoma medications. Glaucoma is a neurodegenerative disorder affected by multiple factors, from which more than 60 million patients worldwide suffer. It is characterized by irreversible progressive loss of retinal ganglion cells (RGC) and distinct optic nerve head (ONH) deterioration, which is related to corresponding visual field loss.
  • 1.1K
  • 08 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Treatment of Amblyopia
Amblyopia is the most common cause of monocular poor vision affecting up to 3.7% of the global population. Classically, the first step in treatment has been optical correction, followed by patching and/or pharmacological treatment. However, this is an evolving scenario, since researchers and clinicians are interested in new binocular treatments due to the increasing development of new technologies. In this article main, current binocular treatments as Dig Rush, falling blocks, I-BiT, Occlu-tab, Vivid Vision, and movies are reviewed for binocular amblyopia management. 
  • 1.1K
  • 05 Jul 2021
Topic Review
Olive Pomace and Ocular Surface
Oxidative- and inflammatory-related ocular surface diseases have high prevalence and are an emerging issue in ophthalmology. Olive pomace (OP) is the olive oil’s industry main by-product, and is potentially environmentally hazardous. Nevertheless, it contains phenolic compounds with important bioactivities, like oleuropein (OL) and hydroxytyrosol (HT). The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of four OP extracts (CONV, OPT(1–3)), pure OL and HT, and mixtures thereof were screened on human corneal (HCE) and conjunctival epithelial (IM-ConjEpi) cells. CONV was conventionally extracted, while OPT(1–3) were produced by pressurized liquid extraction. Thanks to their improved activity, CONV and OPT3 (HT-enriched) were selected for dose-dependent studies. Cells were stimulated with tumor necrosis factor-α or ultraviolet-B radiation, measuring interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, IL-8, and IL-17A as well as interferon γ-induced protein [IP]-10 secretion or intracellular ROS production, respectively. On HCE, both extracts and HT inhibited the secretion of most measured ILs, demonstrating a strong anti-inflammatory effect; while in IM-ConjEpi, all samples decreased IP-10 secretion. Moreover, HT, OL, and both extracts showed strong dose-dependent antioxidant activity in both cell lines. Compared with CONV, OPT3 was active at lower concentrations, demonstrating that intensified extraction techniques are selective towards targeted biomarkers. Hence, a high-value application as potential ocular surface therapy was proposed for the OP valorization.
  • 1.1K
  • 02 Sep 2021
Topic Review
CD36 with Eye Diseases and Pathological Changes
Cluster of differentiation 36 (CD36) belongs to the B2 receptors of the scavenger receptor class B family, which is comprised of single-chain secondary transmembrane glycoproteins. It is present in a variety of cell types, including monocytes, macrophages, microvascular endothelial cells, adipocytes, hepatocytes, platelets, skeletal muscle cells, kidney cells, cardiomyocytes, taste bud cells, and a variety of other cell types. CD36 can be localized on the cell surface, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, and endosomes, playing a role in lipid accumulation, oxidative stress injury, apoptosis, and inflammatory signaling. CD36 is expressed in a variety of ocular cells, including retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), retinal microvascular endothelial cells, retinal ganglion cells (RGC), Müller cells, and photoreceptor cells, playing an important role in eye diseases, such as age-related macular degeneration (AMD), diabetic retinopathy (DR), and glaucoma.
  • 1.1K
  • 31 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Diabetic Retinopathy Treatment
Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is one of the leading matters of vision-loss globally. Even though there have been extensive efforts to reduce vision loss, the prevalence of DR is still uprising. There are several pharmacological and surgical therapies currently used in clinics, but none of them has not been used as effective therapies at the early stage of DR.
  • 1.1K
  • 01 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Pathophysiology of Glaucoma
Glaucoma is a progressive neurodegenerative disease which constitutes the main frequent cause of irreversible blindness. 
  • 1.0K
  • 21 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Acanthamoeba Keratitis
AK is relatively rare among corneal infections, with an estimated prevalence of 1–9 cases per 100,000. However, in Western countries, the incidence of AK has been steadily rising in direct correlation with contact lens wearing, which is the predominant risk factor.
  • 1.0K
  • 29 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Medication for Macular Degeneration
Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is central vision loss with aging, was the fourth main cause of blindness in 2015, and has many risk factors, such as cataract surgery, cigarette smoking, family history, hypertension, obesity, long-term smart device usage, etc. In general, AMD drug candidates from natural products are more effective at treating early and intermediate AMD.
  • 1.0K
  • 05 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Choroidal Neovascular Membranes in Retinal and Choroidal Tumors
Choroidal neovascularizations are historically associated with exudative macular degeneration, nonetheless, they have been observed in nevus, melanoma, osteoma, and hemangioma involving the choroid and retina. 
  • 1.0K
  • 08 Feb 2023
Topic Review
AS-OCT in Corneal Disorders
Anterior segment optical coherence tomography (AS-OCT) is a non-contact method of in vivo ocular imaging technology. It uses low coherence interferometry that measures the echo time delay of light backscattered from tissue structures and combines multiple axial scans into a composite B-scan image. Earlier ultrasound bio microscopy was used for anterior segment imaging, but with time AS-OCT has become a popular imaging tool for anterior segment imaging. AS-OCT is faster and provides more in-depth assessment of the anterior chamber and is repeatable and reproducible. For AS imaging, longer wavelengths (1050–1310 nm) are preferred than retinal OCT (800–900 nm) due to higher penetration and less scattering.
  • 1.0K
  • 15 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide Role in the Eye
Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide (PACAP) is a neuropeptide with widespread distribution throughout the central and peripheral nervous system as well as in many other peripheral organs. It plays cytoprotective effects mediated mainly through the activation of specific receptors. PACAP is known to play pleiotropic effects on the eye, including the cornea, protecting it against different types of insult. 
  • 1.0K
  • 18 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Retinal Ganglion Cell Distress
Retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) are a population of neurons of the central nervous system (CNS) extending with their soma to the inner retina and with their axons to the optic nerve. Glaucoma represents a group of neurodegenerative diseases where the slow progressive death of RGCs results in a permanent loss of vision. To date, although Intra Ocular Pressure (IOP) is considered the main therapeutic target, the precise mechanisms by which RGCs die in glaucoma have not yet been clarified.
  • 1.0K
  • 09 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Ocular Barriers
Innovative and new drug delivery systems (DDSs) have been developed to vehicle treatments and drugs to the ocular posterior segment and the retina. New formulations and technological developments, such as nanotechnology, novel matrices, and non-traditional treatment strategies, open new perspectives in this field.
  • 1.0K
  • 13 Jul 2023
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