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Topic Review
Ketogenic Diet in Prevention of Migraines in Elderly
Migraines display atypical age dependence, as the peak of their prevalence occurs between the ages of 20–40 years. With age, headache attacks occur less frequently and are characterized by a lower amplitude. However, both diagnosis and therapy of migraines in the elderly are challenging due to multiple comorbidities and polypharmacy. Dietary components and eating habits are migraine triggers; therefore, nutrition is a main target in migraine prevention. Several kinds of diets were proposed to prevent migraines, but none are commonly accepted due to inconsistent results obtained in different studies. The ketogenic diet is featured by very low-carbohydrate and high-fat contents. It may replace glucose with ketone bodies as the primary source of energy production. The ketogenic diet and the actions of ketone bodies are considered beneficial in several aspects of health, including migraine prevention, but studies on the ketogenic diet in migraines are not standardized and poorly evidenced. Apart from papers claiming beneficial effects of the ketogenic diet in migraines, several studies have reported that increased levels of ketone bodies may be associated with all-cause and incident heart failure mortality in older adults and are supported by research on mice showing that the ketogenic diets and diet supplementation with a human ketone body precursor may cause life span shortening. Therefore, despite reports showing a beneficial effect of the ketogenic diet in migraines, such a diet requires further studies, including clinical trials, to verify whether it should be recommended in older adults with migraines.
  • 683
  • 06 Dec 2023
Topic Review
A New Paradigm to Indicate Antidepressant Treatments
This entry describes that a new paradigm must be applied in which the relative value of antidepressant treatment is specifically weighted in terms of enabling the natural resilience process. 
  • 682
  • 04 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Gut Microbiota in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
The gut microbiota is able to modulate the development and homeostasis of the central nervous system (CNS) through the immune, circulatory, and neuronal systems. In turn, the CNS influences the gut microbiota through stress responses and at the level of the endocrine system. This bidirectional communication forms the “gut microbiota–brain axis” and has been postulated to play a role in the etiopathology of several neurodegenerative diseases, including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).
  • 682
  • 31 May 2022
Topic Review
Cerebral Amyloid Angiopathy
Small vessel diseases (SVD) is an umbrella term including several entities affecting small arteries, arterioles, capillaries, and venules in the brain. One of the most relevant and prevalent SVDs is cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA), whose pathological hallmark is the deposition of amyloid fragments in the walls of small cortical and leptomeningeal vessels. CAA frequently coexists with Alzheimer’s Disease (AD), and both are associated with cerebrovascular events, cognitive impairment, and dementia. CAA and AD share pathophysiological, histopathological and neuroimaging issues.
  • 682
  • 11 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Visceral Adipose Tissue Metabolism and Alzheimer’s Disease
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive, neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the presence of intracellular neurofibrillary tangles and extracellular amyloid-β (Aβ) plaques in the brain. Although the accumulation of Aβ plaques is believed to be one of the factors driving AD pathogenesis, clear pathophysiology of AD delineating the contributions of each pathological protein has not been confirmed. The visceral adipose tissue (VAT) has been recognized as an endocrine organ, and VAT dysfunction could be a risk factor for AD. Epidemiological studies revealed that high adiposity is correlated with an increased risk of developing dementia, including AD. In addition, significant relationships between adipose-derived molecules, such as leptin and adiponectin, and progression of AD have been reported. Moreover, it was recently reported that the proinflammatory cytokine derived from VAT plays an important role in the pathogenesis of AD. However, the mechanism by which VAT dysfunction affects the development and progression of AD remains unclear.
  • 678
  • 25 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Smartphone Keystroke Dynamics for Understanding Neurocognitive Functioning
Can digital technologies provide a passive unobtrusive means to observe and study cognition outside of the laboratory? Previously, cognitive assessments and monitoring were conducted in a laboratory or clinical setting, allowing for a cross-sectional glimpse of cognitive states. 
  • 678
  • 30 Jun 2023
Topic Review
Platelet APP in Alzheimer’s Disease
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a multifactorial age-related progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by gradual memory loss, cognitive decline and functional alteration that cause difficulties in the performance of everyday life activities and loss of self-identity.
  • 677
  • 26 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Stem Cell Therapy for Spinal Cord Injuries
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a devastating neurological disorder that has a substantial detrimental impact on a person’s quality of life. The estimated global incidence of SCI is 40 to 80 cases per million people and around 90% of cases are traumatic. Various etiologies can be recognized for SCI, and post-traumatic SCI represents the most common of these. Patients worldwide with SCI suffer from a persistent loss of motor and sensory function, which affects every aspect of their personal and social lives. Given the lack of effective treatments, many efforts have been made to seek a cure for this condition.
  • 677
  • 18 Dec 2023
Topic Review
PET in Neurodegenerative Diseases
Positron emission tomography (PET) allows for the in vivo assessment of early brain functional and molecular changes in neurodegenerative conditions, representing a unique tool in the diagnostic workup. The increased use of multivariate PET imaging analysis approaches has provided the chance to investigate regional molecular processes and long-distance brain circuit functional interactions in the last decade. PET metabolic and neurotransmission connectome can reveal brain region interactions.
  • 676
  • 06 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Roles of GluN2D NMDA Receptor Subunit in Schizophrenia
Glutamate N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) hypofunction has been proposed to underlie schizophrenia symptoms. This theory arose from the observation that administration of NMDAR antagonists, which are compounds that inhibit NMDAR activity, reproduces behavioural and molecular schizophrenia-like phenotypes, including hallucinations, delusions and cognitive impairments in healthy humans and animal models. However, the role of specific NMDAR subunits in these schizophrenia-relevant phenotypes is largely unknown. Mounting evidence implicates the GluN2D subunit of NMDAR in some of these symptoms and pathology. 
  • 676
  • 28 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Patterns of ECMO-Related Acute Brain Injury
Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) is a frequently used mechanical cardiopulmonary support for rescuing critically ill patients for whom conventional medical therapies have failed. However, ECMO is associated with several complications, such as acute kidney injury, hemorrhage, thromboembolism, and acute brain injury (ABI). Among these, ABI, particularly intracranial hemorrhage (ICH) and infarction, is recognized as the primary cause of mortality during ECMO support.
  • 676
  • 17 Aug 2023
Topic Review
GluN1 Subunit in the Cellular Nucleus
The N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) glutamate receptors function as plasma membrane ionic channels and take part in very tightly controlled cellular processes activating neurogenic and inflammatory pathways. In particular, the NR1 subunit (new terminology: GluN1) is required for many neuronal and non-neuronal cell functions, including plasticity, survival, and differentiation. Protein tyrosine kinase inhibitors can effectively reduce (i) pain-related behavior, (ii) GluN1 subunit expression increases in the spinal cord, and (iii) the shift of GluN1 subunit from a cell membrane to nuclear localization. 
  • 676
  • 29 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Cognitive Functions in Patients
Carotid revascularization may lead to improved cognitive function beyond stroke prevention. This article summarizes the conclusions from available studies on the effects of carotid reperfusion procedures on cognitive function. The papers cited used different neuropsychological tests for cognitive assessment, resulting in different methodologies and the results obtained were not always convergent. However, most studies reported an improvement in neurocognitive abilities after both vascular interventions, but a more precise assessment of the specific benefits is still awaited. Clinical determinants to predict the effects of these treatments on cognitive function are still being sought, but results are not yet satisfactory. In view of these studies, carotid stenosis seems to be an independent risk factor for cognitive deterioration, and the main mechanisms responsible are embolism and cerebral hypoperfusion. The aim of this study is to order the knowledge about the effects of carotid artery stenting (CAS) and endarterectomy (CEA) on neurocognitive functions and to verify the usefulness of using these treatments. 
  • 675
  • 26 Oct 2021
Topic Review
miRNA Involvement in Parkinson’s Disease
Parkinson’s Disease (PD), the second most common neurodegenerative disorder, is characterised by the severe loss of dopaminergic neurons in the Substantia Nigra pars compacta (SNpc) and by the presence of Lewy bodies. PD is diagnosed upon the onset of motor symptoms, such as bradykinesia, resting tremor, rigidity, and postural instability. It is accepted that motor symptoms are preceded by non-motor features, such as gastrointestinal dysfunction. In fact, it has been proposed that PD might start in the gut and spread to the central nervous system. Growing evidence reports that the gut microbiota, which has been found to be altered in PD patients, influences the function of the central and enteric nervous systems. Altered expression of microRNAs (miRNAs) in PD patients has also been reported, many of which regulate key pathological mechanisms involved in PD pathogenesis, such as mitochondrial dysfunction and immunity. It remains unknown how gut microbiota regulates brain function, however miRNAs have been highlighted as important players. Remarkably, numerous studies have depicted the ability of miRNAs to modulate and be regulated by the host’s gut microbiota.
  • 675
  • 14 Jun 2023
Topic Review
Microbial Dysbiosis and α-Syn
Alpha-synuclein (α-Syn) is a short presynaptic protein with an active role on synaptic vesicle traffic and the neurotransmitter release and reuptake cycle. The α-Syn pathology intertwines with the formation of Lewy Bodies (multiprotein intraneuronal aggregations), which, combined with inflammatory events, define various α-synucleinopathies, such as Parkinson’s Disease (PD). The microbiota—which consists of thousands of bacterial, viral, and fungal species that inhabit different parts of the human body—plays a critical role in human health, not only through its barrier function against pathogens, but also through its regulatory role of the immune system as well as its impact on other important functions, such as the regulation of movement. The human gut microbiota in particular has been the focus of intense research. This microbiota is shaped by lifetime determinants (such as diet, disease history, age, or genetic heritance) and produces a variety of molecules, some of which can enter the bloodstream and affect overall systemic health. 
  • 675
  • 17 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Brain Endothelial Cell Activation and Dysfunction (BECact/dys)
Embryonic genetic mechanisms are present in the brain and ready to be placed into action upon cellular injury, termed the response to injury wound-healing (RTIWH) mechanism. When injured, regional brain endothelial cells initially undergo activation and dysfunction with initiation of hemostasis, inflammation (peripheral leukocytes, innate microglia, and perivascular macrophage cells), proliferation (astrogliosis), remodeling, repair, and resolution phases if the injurious stimuli are removed.
  • 675
  • 25 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Nitric Oxide-Dependent Pathway, cerebral ischemia
The review summarizes the roles of NO•-dependent pathways in the early and late aftermath of stroke and treatments based on the stimulation or inhibition of particular NO• synthases and the stabilization of HIF-1α activity.
  • 674
  • 19 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Neutrophil to Lymphocyte Ratio in Traumatic Brain Injury
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a leading cause of injury and mortality worldwide, carrying an estimated cost of $38 billion in the United States alone. Neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio (NLR) has been investigated as a standardized biomarker that can be used to predict outcomes of TBI.
  • 674
  • 29 Feb 2024
Topic Review
Applications of Advancing Prone-Transpsoas Spine Surgery
The Prone Transpsoas (PTP) approach to lumbar spine surgery, emerging as an evolution of lateral lumbar interbody fusion (LLIF), offers significant advantages over traditional methods. PTP has demonstrated increased lumbar lordosis gains compared to LLIF, owing to the natural increase in lordosis afforded by prone positioning. Additionally, the prone position offers anatomical advantages, with shifts in the psoas muscle and lumbar plexus, reducing the likelihood of postoperative femoral plexopathy and moving critical peritoneal contents away from the approach. Furthermore, operative efficiency is a notable benefit of PTP. 
  • 670
  • 26 Feb 2024
Topic Review
Physical Activity vs. Redox Balance in the Brain
It has been proven that physical exercise improves cognitive function and memory, has an analgesic and antidepressant effect, and delays the aging of the brain and the development of diseases, including neurodegenerative disorders. There are even attempts to use physical activity in the treatment of mental diseases. The course of most diseases is strictly associated with oxidative stress, which can be prevented or alleviated with regular exercise. It has been proven that physical exercise helps to maintain the oxidant–antioxidant balance.
  • 668
  • 12 Jan 2022
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