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Topic Review
Multiple Sclerosis Lesion Pathology
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic disease characterised by inflammation, extensive primary demyelination and progressive neurodegenerative processes.
  • 660
  • 31 Aug 2023
Topic Review
MicroRNAs in Prion Diseases
Prion is an atypical etiological agent composed solely of a misfolded protein—(proteinaceous infectious particle), which affects mammals causing a group of slow, progressive, neurodegenerative, lethal, untreatable disorders known as transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs).
  • 659
  • 30 Jul 2021
Topic Review
Nitric Oxide-Dependent Pathway, cerebral ischemia
The review summarizes the roles of NO•-dependent pathways in the early and late aftermath of stroke and treatments based on the stimulation or inhibition of particular NO• synthases and the stabilization of HIF-1α activity.
  • 659
  • 19 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Physical Activity vs. Redox Balance in the Brain
It has been proven that physical exercise improves cognitive function and memory, has an analgesic and antidepressant effect, and delays the aging of the brain and the development of diseases, including neurodegenerative disorders. There are even attempts to use physical activity in the treatment of mental diseases. The course of most diseases is strictly associated with oxidative stress, which can be prevented or alleviated with regular exercise. It has been proven that physical exercise helps to maintain the oxidant–antioxidant balance.
  • 659
  • 12 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Visceral Adipose Tissue Metabolism and Alzheimer’s Disease
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive, neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the presence of intracellular neurofibrillary tangles and extracellular amyloid-β (Aβ) plaques in the brain. Although the accumulation of Aβ plaques is believed to be one of the factors driving AD pathogenesis, clear pathophysiology of AD delineating the contributions of each pathological protein has not been confirmed. The visceral adipose tissue (VAT) has been recognized as an endocrine organ, and VAT dysfunction could be a risk factor for AD. Epidemiological studies revealed that high adiposity is correlated with an increased risk of developing dementia, including AD. In addition, significant relationships between adipose-derived molecules, such as leptin and adiponectin, and progression of AD have been reported. Moreover, it was recently reported that the proinflammatory cytokine derived from VAT plays an important role in the pathogenesis of AD. However, the mechanism by which VAT dysfunction affects the development and progression of AD remains unclear.
  • 659
  • 25 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Post-Traumatic Cerebral Infarction
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a common diagnosis requiring acute hospitalization. Long-term, TBI is a significant source of health and socioeconomic impact in the United States and globally. The goal of clinicians who manage TBI is to prevent secondary brain injury. In this population, post-traumatic cerebral infarction (PTCI) acutely after TBI is an important but under-recognized complication that is associated with negative functional outcomes.
  • 659
  • 20 Feb 2024
Topic Review
Human Monocytes Plasticity in Neurodegeneration
Monocytes are characterized by a remarkable degree of plasticity and ability to rapidly adapt to a wide range of microenvironments. A number of studies have demonstrated the importance of epigenetics in the regulation of monocyte phenotypes. Epigenetic modifications are influenced by diverse factors able to induce cell-specific changes to the environmental exposure.
  • 657
  • 08 Jul 2021
Topic Review
Cognitive Impairment Following the History of Multiple Sclerosis
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic, inflammatory, demyelinating, and degenerative disease of the central nervous system (CNS). Tracing the history of MS, from the first descriptions of the disease to the present day, is not only important from a historical or social viewpoint: the reconstruction of this path allows to understand, for example, how the cognitive impairments and psycho-emotional disorders which characterize MS are under-recognized or variously interpreted, even today.
  • 656
  • 28 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Neutrophil to Lymphocyte Ratio in Traumatic Brain Injury
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a leading cause of injury and mortality worldwide, carrying an estimated cost of $38 billion in the United States alone. Neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio (NLR) has been investigated as a standardized biomarker that can be used to predict outcomes of TBI.
  • 656
  • 29 Feb 2024
Topic Review
Netrin Receptors
Netrin–1 are chemotropic proteins that belong to the family of laminin-related secreted proteins.
  • 654
  • 30 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Neuropathological Criteria for Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy
Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) is a complex pathological condition characterized by neurodegeneration, as a result of repeated head traumas. Currently, the diagnosis of CTE can only be assumed postmortem. Thus, the clinical manifestations associated with CTE are referred to as traumatic encephalopathy syndrome (TES), for which diagnostic multiple sets of criteria can be used.
  • 654
  • 13 Jun 2023
Topic Review
Reasons for Neuron Copper Deficiency in Alzheimer Patients
Alzheimer’s disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that eventually leads the affected patients to die. The appearance of senile plaques in the brains of Alzheimer’s patients is known as a main symptom of this disease. The plaques consist of different components, and according to numerous reports, their main components include beta-amyloid peptide and transition metals such as copper. In this disease, metal dyshomeostasis leads the number of copper ions to simultaneously increase in the plaques and decrease in neurons. Copper ions are essential for proper brain functioning, and one of the possible mechanisms of neuronal death in Alzheimer’s disease is the copper depletion of neurons. However, the reason for the copper depletion is as yet unknown.
  • 653
  • 14 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Endogenous Cardiac Steroids in Bipolar Disorder
Type I bipolar disorder (BD) is a severe psychiatric illness that manifests as extreme variations in mood and energy, usually labelled as mania and depression, interspersed over a euthymic or dysthymic baseline. Bipolar disorder (BD) is a severe psychiatric illness with a poor prognosis and problematic, suboptimal, treatments. Treatments, borne of an understanding of the pathoetiologic mechanisms, need to be developed in order to improve outcomes. Dysregulation of cationic homeostasis is the most reproducible aspect of BD pathophysiology. Correction of ionic balance is the universal mechanism of action of all mood stabilizing medications. Endogenous sodium pump modulators (collectively known as endogenous cardiac steroids, ECS) are steroids which are synthesized in and released from the adrenal gland and brain. These compounds, by activating or inhibiting Na+, K+-ATPase activity and activating intracellular signaling cascades, have numerous effects on cell survival, vascular tone homeostasis, inflammation, and neuronal activity. 
  • 651
  • 21 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Subarachnoid Hemorrhage and Delayed Cerebral Ischemia
Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) is a type of hemorrhagic stroke resulting from the rupture of an arterial vessel within the brain. Unlike other stroke types, SAH affects both young adults (mid-40s) and the geriatric population. Patients with SAH often experience significant neurological deficits, leading to a substantial societal burden in terms of lost potential years of life. 
  • 651
  • 28 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Biomarkers of Dementia with Lewy Bodies
Dementia with Lewy Bodies (DLB) presents certain clinical specificities such as visual illusions or hallucinations and fluctuations in attention, but also a particular sensitivity to neuroleptics. Despite the very high diagnostic specificity of these criteria (the specificity of probable DLB is 95.1% in early stages and 88% in late stages), their sensitivity remains low (32%) in pure DLB or even lower (12%) when associated with Alzheimer’s disease (AD). In other words, DLB is still a largely underdiagnosed disease in more than two-thirds of cases. It is therefore essential to discover new biomarkers that can distinguish DLB from AD to improve differential diagnosis.
  • 650
  • 01 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Neuroimaging and Neuroradiology of Acute Ischemic Stroke
Among the high prevalence of cerebrovascular diseases, acute ischemic stroke stands out, representing a significant worldwide health issue with important socio-economic implications. Prompt diagnosis and intervention are important milestones for the management of this multifaceted pathology, making understanding the various stroke-onset symptoms crucial. A key role in acute ischemic stroke management is emphasizing the essential role of a multi-disciplinary team, therefore, increasing the efficiency of recognition and treatment. Neuroimaging and neuroradiology have evolved dramatically over the years, with multiple approaches that provide a higher understanding of the morphological aspects as well as timely recognition of cerebral artery occlusions for effective therapy planning. 
  • 649
  • 27 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Corticolimbic GABAergic Interneurons and Opioidergic System
Mesocorticolimbic dopaminergic pathways are extensive and consist of various subregions from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) to the nucleus accumbens (NAc), the limbic system, and the cortical areas. These neuronal projections are primarily involved in reward, motivational behaviors, and cognitive functions. The coexistence of opioid and GABA receptors on these neurons and their functional interplay enable the modulation of dopaminergic system in VTA. By understanding the receptor's co-localization and their immunochemical markers, clinicians and researchers gain a comprehensive understanding of the neuronal circuits contributing to the reward system.
  • 648
  • 23 May 2023
Topic Review
Transcranial Electrical Stimulation in Gambling and Gaming
Gambling disorder (GD) and internet gaming disorder (IGD) are formally recognized behavioral addictions with a rapidly growing prevalence and limited treatment options. Transcranial electrical stimulation (tES) techniques have emerged as potentially promising interventions for improving treatment outcomes by ameliorating cognitive functions implicated in addictive behaviors.
  • 648
  • 25 Jun 2023
Topic Review
E2F4DN Transgenic Mice
E2F4 was initially described as a transcription factor with a key function in the regulation of cell quiescence. The regulation of E2F4 is complex, as it can be chemically modified through acetylation, from which researchers present evidence in the brain, as well as methylation, and phosphorylation. The phosphorylation of E2F4 within a conserved threonine motif induces cell cycle re-entry in neurons, while a dominant negative form of E2F4 (E2F4DN), in which the conserved threonines have been substituted by alanines, has been shown to act as a multifactorial therapeutic agent for Alzheimer’s disease (AD).
  • 647
  • 24 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Endocannabinoid System in Neurodegenerative Diseases
The altered expression of endocannabinoids and cannabinoid receptors has been observed in neurodegenerative conditions. Accordingly, it has been assumed that endocannabinoid-degradative enzymes, CB1 and CB2 receptors, and the modulation of the activity of endogenous cannabinoids represent valuable therapeutic targets in neurodegenerative diseases, as well as in other diseases such as epilepsy, stroke, inflammation, multiple sclerosis, traumatic brain injuries and psychiatric illnesses.
  • 647
  • 01 Nov 2022
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