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Topic Review
Conventional MRI Characteristics of Peri- and Para-Vascular Spaces
Brain spaces around (perivascular spaces) and alongside (paravascular or Virchow–Robin spaces) vessels have gained significant attention due to the advancements of in vivo imaging tools and to their crucial role in maintaining brain health, contributing to the anatomic foundation of the glymphatic system. In fact, it is widely accepted that peri- and para-vascular spaces function as waste clearance pathways for the brain for materials such as ß-amyloid by allowing exchange between cerebrospinal fluid and interstitial fluid. Visible brain spaces on magnetic resonance imaging are often a normal finding, but they have also been associated with a wide range of neurological and systemic conditions, suggesting their potential as early indicators of intracranial pressure and neurofluid imbalance.
  • 682
  • 01 Feb 2024
Topic Review
A New Paradigm to Indicate Antidepressant Treatments
This entry describes that a new paradigm must be applied in which the relative value of antidepressant treatment is specifically weighted in terms of enabling the natural resilience process. 
  • 681
  • 04 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Modelling Ischaemic Stroke In Vitro
Most of the knowledge on the pathophysiological mechanisms of an ischaemic stroke is derived from animal-based in vitro and in vivo models. Over the past decades, different animal models of stroke have been developed, induced by emboli, intraluminal suture, photothrombosis or endothelin-1, typically in rodents. The rat is one of the most commonly used species in stroke research, among other reasons, due to the similarity of the cerebral vasculature and physiology with that of humans. Moreover, mice are often used, since they are helpful in unravelling the function of certain genes in the pathophysiology of stroke by means of the creation of transgenic mice. Animal stroke models have been an indispensable tool, as they can model different aspects of the complex pathophysiology of ischaemic stroke that cannot be modelled (yet) in simple in vitro models lacking intact blood vessels and blood flow. However, simplified, highly controlled in vitro systems are required and preferred when investigating specific basic mechanisms and cell type-specific responses under ischaemia-like conditions. Besides, in the context of testing potential neuroprotective compounds, working in vitro allows high-throughput screenings, even on a human-based background.
  • 681
  • 19 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Gut Microbiota in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
The gut microbiota is able to modulate the development and homeostasis of the central nervous system (CNS) through the immune, circulatory, and neuronal systems. In turn, the CNS influences the gut microbiota through stress responses and at the level of the endocrine system. This bidirectional communication forms the “gut microbiota–brain axis” and has been postulated to play a role in the etiopathology of several neurodegenerative diseases, including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).
  • 680
  • 31 May 2022
Topic Review
Management of Antithrombotic Therapy in Post-Myocardial Infarction Patients
The association between atrial fibrillation (AF), acute coronary syndrome (ACS), and stroke is a complex scenario in which the assessment of both thrombotic and hemorrhagic risk is necessary for scheduling an individually tailored therapeutic plan. 
  • 679
  • 28 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Impact of GWAS on Understanding Alzheimer’s Disease
Several risk factors have been identified in sporadic AD; aging is the main one. Nonetheless, multiple genes have been associated with the different neuropathological events involved in LOAD, such as the pathological processing of Amyloid beta (Aβ) peptide and Tau protein, as well as synaptic and mitochondrial dysfunctions, neurovascular alterations, oxidative stress, and neuroinflammation, among others. Interestingly, using genome-wide association study (GWAS) technology, many polymorphisms associated with LOAD have been identified
  • 678
  • 17 Mar 2023
Topic Review
Plants Oil and Multiple Sclerosis
Multiple sclerosis disease (MS) is a 38.5 chronic neurological autoimmune disease that affects the nervous system, and its incidence is increasing globally. There is no cure for this disease, and with its severity and disabling variety, it is important to search for possibilities that could help to slow its progression. It is recognized that the mechanisms of MS pathology, its development and degree of activity can be affected by dietary factors. 
  • 675
  • 22 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Smartphone Keystroke Dynamics for Understanding Neurocognitive Functioning
Can digital technologies provide a passive unobtrusive means to observe and study cognition outside of the laboratory? Previously, cognitive assessments and monitoring were conducted in a laboratory or clinical setting, allowing for a cross-sectional glimpse of cognitive states. 
  • 674
  • 30 Jun 2023
Topic Review
Oxidative Stress and Nrf2 Pathway in Multiple Sclerosis
The pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS) suggests that, in genetically susceptible subjects, T lymphocytes undergo activation in the peripheral compartment, pass through the BBB, and cause damage in the CNS. They produce pro-inflammatory cytokines; induce cytotoxic activities in microglia and astrocytes with the accumulation of reactive oxygen species, reactive nitrogen species, and other highly reactive radicals; activate B cells and macrophages and stimulate the complement system. Inflammation and neurodegeneration are involved from the very beginning of the disease. They can both be affected by oxidative stress (OS) with different emphases depending on the time course of MS. Thus, OS initiates and supports inflammatory processes in the active phase, while in the chronic phase it supports neurodegenerative processes. A still unresolved issue in overcoming OS-induced lesions in MS is the insufficient endogenous activation of the Nuclear Factor Erythroid 2-Related Factor 2 (Nrf2) pathway, which under normal conditions plays an essential role in mitochondria protection, OS, neuroinflammation, and degeneration. Thus, the search for approaches aiming to elevate endogenous Nrf2 activation is capable of protecting the brain against oxidative damage. However, exogenous Nrf2 activators themselves are not without drawbacks, necessitating the search for new non-pharmacological therapeutic approaches to modulate OS.
  • 674
  • 25 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Decoding Neurodegeneration
Neurodegenerative disorders often acquire due to genetic predispositions and genomic alterations after exposure to multiple risk factors. The most commonly found pathologies are variations of dementia, such as frontotemporal dementia and Lewy body dementia, as well as rare subtypes of cerebral and cerebellar atrophy-based syndromes. In an emerging era of biomedical advances, molecular–cellular studies offer an essential avenue for a thorough recognition of the underlying mechanisms and their possible implications in the patient’s symptomatology. 
  • 672
  • 04 Sep 2023
Topic Review
PET in Neurodegenerative Diseases
Positron emission tomography (PET) allows for the in vivo assessment of early brain functional and molecular changes in neurodegenerative conditions, representing a unique tool in the diagnostic workup. The increased use of multivariate PET imaging analysis approaches has provided the chance to investigate regional molecular processes and long-distance brain circuit functional interactions in the last decade. PET metabolic and neurotransmission connectome can reveal brain region interactions.
  • 671
  • 06 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Platelet APP in Alzheimer’s Disease
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a multifactorial age-related progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by gradual memory loss, cognitive decline and functional alteration that cause difficulties in the performance of everyday life activities and loss of self-identity.
  • 671
  • 26 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Microbial Dysbiosis and α-Syn
Alpha-synuclein (α-Syn) is a short presynaptic protein with an active role on synaptic vesicle traffic and the neurotransmitter release and reuptake cycle. The α-Syn pathology intertwines with the formation of Lewy Bodies (multiprotein intraneuronal aggregations), which, combined with inflammatory events, define various α-synucleinopathies, such as Parkinson’s Disease (PD). The microbiota—which consists of thousands of bacterial, viral, and fungal species that inhabit different parts of the human body—plays a critical role in human health, not only through its barrier function against pathogens, but also through its regulatory role of the immune system as well as its impact on other important functions, such as the regulation of movement. The human gut microbiota in particular has been the focus of intense research. This microbiota is shaped by lifetime determinants (such as diet, disease history, age, or genetic heritance) and produces a variety of molecules, some of which can enter the bloodstream and affect overall systemic health. 
  • 671
  • 17 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Microbes and Mental Illness: Past, Present, and Future
Microbes are associated with a number of mental disorders, including autism, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, depressive disorders, and anxiety disorders, as well as suicidality and aggressive or violent behaviors. Specific microbes that have been associated or potentially associated with at least one of these conditions include Aspergillus, Babesia, Bartonella, Borna disease virus, Borrelia burgdorferi (Lyme disease), Candida, Chlamydia, coronaviruses (e.g., SARS-CoV-2), Cryptococcus neoformans, cytomegalovirus, enteroviruses, Epstein–Barr virus, hepatitis C, herpes simplex virus, human endogenous retroviruses, human immunodeficiency virus, human herpesvirus-6 (HHV-6), human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1, influenza viruses, measles virus, Mycoplasma, Plasmodium, rubella virus, Group A Streptococcus (PANDAS), Taenia solium, Toxoplasma gondii, Treponema pallidum (syphilis), Trypanosoma, and West Nile virus.
  • 670
  • 09 Jan 2024
Topic Review
Brain Endothelial Cell Activation and Dysfunction (BECact/dys)
Embryonic genetic mechanisms are present in the brain and ready to be placed into action upon cellular injury, termed the response to injury wound-healing (RTIWH) mechanism. When injured, regional brain endothelial cells initially undergo activation and dysfunction with initiation of hemostasis, inflammation (peripheral leukocytes, innate microglia, and perivascular macrophage cells), proliferation (astrogliosis), remodeling, repair, and resolution phases if the injurious stimuli are removed.
  • 669
  • 25 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Migraine as a Disease Associated with Dysbiosis
Migraine is a painful neurological condition characterized by severe pain on one or both sides of the head. It may be linked to changes in the gut microbiota, which are influenced by antibiotic use and other factors. Dysbiosis, which develops and persists as a result of earlier antibiotic therapy, changes the composition of the intestinal flora, and can lead to the development of various diseases such as metabolic disorders, obesity, hematological malignancies, neurological or behavioral disorders, and migraine. Metabolites produced by the gut microbiome have been shown to influence the gut–brain axis. The use of probiotics as a dietary supplement may reduce the number and severity of migraine episodes. Dietary strategies can affect the course of migraines and are a valuable tool for improving migraine management. With fecal microbiota transplantation, gut microbial restoration is more effective and more durable. Changes after fecal microbiota transplantation were studied in detail, and many data help us to interpret the successful interventions. The microbiological alteration of the gut microflora can lead to normalization of the inflammatory mediators, the serotonin pathway, and influence the frequency and intensity of migraine pain.
  • 669
  • 24 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Cognitive Functions in Patients
Carotid revascularization may lead to improved cognitive function beyond stroke prevention. This article summarizes the conclusions from available studies on the effects of carotid reperfusion procedures on cognitive function. The papers cited used different neuropsychological tests for cognitive assessment, resulting in different methodologies and the results obtained were not always convergent. However, most studies reported an improvement in neurocognitive abilities after both vascular interventions, but a more precise assessment of the specific benefits is still awaited. Clinical determinants to predict the effects of these treatments on cognitive function are still being sought, but results are not yet satisfactory. In view of these studies, carotid stenosis seems to be an independent risk factor for cognitive deterioration, and the main mechanisms responsible are embolism and cerebral hypoperfusion. The aim of this study is to order the knowledge about the effects of carotid artery stenting (CAS) and endarterectomy (CEA) on neurocognitive functions and to verify the usefulness of using these treatments. 
  • 668
  • 26 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Applications of Advancing Prone-Transpsoas Spine Surgery
The Prone Transpsoas (PTP) approach to lumbar spine surgery, emerging as an evolution of lateral lumbar interbody fusion (LLIF), offers significant advantages over traditional methods. PTP has demonstrated increased lumbar lordosis gains compared to LLIF, owing to the natural increase in lordosis afforded by prone positioning. Additionally, the prone position offers anatomical advantages, with shifts in the psoas muscle and lumbar plexus, reducing the likelihood of postoperative femoral plexopathy and moving critical peritoneal contents away from the approach. Furthermore, operative efficiency is a notable benefit of PTP. 
  • 663
  • 26 Feb 2024
Topic Review
Prefrontal Cortex in Schizophrenia
Disturbances in cognitive function are crucial symptoms of schizophrenia. Impairments in attention, memory, and executive functions, i.e., the ability to plan, initiate and regulate goal-directed behaviour are present throughout the entire course of the illness. 
  • 662
  • 07 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Alternate Causes for Pathogenesis of Exfoliation Glaucoma
Exfoliation glaucoma (XFG) is the most recognizable form of secondary open-angle glaucoma associated with a high risk of blindness. This disease is characterized by white flaky granular deposits in the anterior chamber that leads to the elevation of intraocular pressure (IOP) and subsequent glaucomatous optic nerve damage. Conventionally, XFG is known to respond poorly to medical therapy, and surgical intervention is the only management option in most cases.
  • 661
  • 11 Mar 2022
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