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Topic Review
Neurological Diseases and Their Biomarkers
Neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs) are disorders that affect both the central and peripheral nervous systems. To name a few causes, NDDs can be caused by ischemia, oxidative and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) cell stress, inflammation, abnormal protein deposition in neural tissue, autoimmune-mediated neuron loss, and viral or prion infections.
  • 976
  • 07 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Biomedical Applications of mRNA Using Nanomedicine
The development and commercialization of mRNA COVID-19 vaccines have pivoted the way towards future applications of mRNA medicines by finally finding a solution to the problem of delivery. Despite concerns from detractors about a lack of applications for nanotechnology, nanomedicine has now demonstrated that it is a translational, relevant and much-needed approach to engineer new genetic drugs. Thus, it is now clear that the full potential of mRNA therapeutics, along with its advantages could not be envisioned without nanomedicine.
  • 971
  • 07 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Pharmacological Activities of Betulin
Betulin is a natural triterpene, usually from birch bark, known for its potential wound-healing properties. Betulin has protective effects against cardiovascular and liver diseases, cancer, diabetes, oxidative stress, and inflammation. It reduces postprandial hyperglycemia by inhibiting α-amylase and α-glucosidase activity, combats tumor cells by inducing apoptosis and inhibiting metastatic proteins, and modulates chronic inflammation by blocking the expression of proinflammatory cytokines via modulation of the NFκB and MAPKs pathways.
  • 971
  • 25 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Prejunctional 5-HT Receptors/Mechanisms and Modulation of Neurovascular Transmission
5-Hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), or serotonin, plays a crucial role as a neuromodulator and/or neurotransmitter of several nervous system functions. Its actions are complex, and depend on multiple factors, including the type of effector or receptor activated. Briefly, 5-HT can activate: (i) metabotropic (G-protein-coupled) receptors to promote inhibition (5-HT1, 5-HT5) or activation (5-HT4, 5-HT6, 5-HT7) of adenylate cyclase, as well as activation (5-HT2) of phospholipase C; and (ii) ionotropic receptor (5-HT3), a ligand-gated Na+/K+ channel. Regarding blood pressure regulation (and beyond the intricacy of central 5-HT effects), this monoamine also exerts direct postjunctional (on vascular smooth muscle and endothelium) or indirect prejunctional (on autonomic and sensory perivascular nerves) effects. At the prejunctional level, 5-HT can facilitate or preclude the release of autonomic (e.g., noradrenaline and acetylcholine) or sensory (e.g., calcitonin gene-related peptide) neurotransmitters facilitating hypertensive or hypotensive effects. Hence, we cannot formulate a specific impact of 5-HT on blood pressure level, since an increase or decrease in neurotransmitter release would be favoured, depending on the type of prejunctional receptor involved.
  • 970
  • 14 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Applications of Antimicrobial Photodynamic Therapy
Originally discovered as a relatively new anticancer therapeutic technology, photodynamic therapy (PDT) has since evolved and is now used in many therapeutic technologies. For example, it is used against viruses, such as the recently reported antiviral activity against COVID-19, bacteria, fungi, and parasites, in treating neovascular disease, in environmental sanitation and pest control, and in many other applications. 
  • 969
  • 13 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Proteomic Research on Antitumor Properties of Medicinal Mushrooms
Medicinal mushrooms are increasingly being recognized as an important therapeutic modality in complementary oncology. Until now, more than 800 mushroom species have been known to possess significant pharmacological properties, of which antitumor and immunomodulatory properties have been the most researched. Besides a number of medicinal mushroom preparations being used as dietary supplements and nutraceuticals, several isolates from mushrooms have been used as official antitumor drugs in clinical settings for several decades. Various proteomic approaches allow for the identification of a large number of differentially regulated proteins serendipitously, thereby providing an important platform for a discovery of new potential therapeutic targets and approaches as well as biomarkers of malignant disease. This entry is focused on the current state of proteomic research into antitumor mechanisms of some of the most researched medicinal mushroom species, including Phellinus linteus, Ganoderma lucidum, Auricularia auricula, Agrocybe aegerita, Grifola frondosa, and Lentinus edodes, as whole body extracts or various isolates, as well as of complex extract mixtures.
  • 967
  • 15 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Pharmacological Effects and Clinical Prospects of Cepharanthine
Cepharanthine is an active ingredient separated and extracted from Stephania cepharantha Hayata, a Menispermaceae plant. As a bisbenzylisoquinoline alkaloid, cepharanthine has various pharmacological properties, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, antitumoral, and antiviral effects. Following the emergence of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), cepharanthine has been found to have excellent anti-COVID-19 activity.
  • 965
  • 23 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Hepatic CYP2E1 in Causal Toxicity and Treatment Options
Cytochrome P450 2E1 (CYP2E1), one of the major metabolizing enzymes in humans, is mainly expressed in the liver. Alcohol and several therapeutic drugs, including acetaminophen, are metabolized by CYP2E1 into toxic compounds. At low levels, these compounds are not detrimental, but higher sustained levels of these compounds can lead to life-long problems such as cytotoxicity, organ damage, and cancer. Furthermore, CYP2E1 can facilitate or enhance the effects of alcohol-drug and drug-drug interactions.
  • 964
  • 13 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Prunella vulgaris L.
Prunella vulgaris L. (PV) is a well-known renewable drug resource full of different groups of biologically active substances with a wide range of pharmacological actions and applications in medicine.
  • 963
  • 09 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Ovarian Cancer Stem Cell Niche
Ovarian cancer is an aggressive gynaecological cancer with extremely poor prognosis, due to late diagnosis as well as the development of chemoresistance after first-line therapy.
  • 962
  • 05 May 2021
Topic Review
PTP1B Inhibitors
Protein-tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B) negatively regulates insulin signaling pathways and plays an important role in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), as its overexpression may induce insulin resistance.
  • 962
  • 21 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs
The non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are the most used drugs in knee OA (osteoarthritis) treatment. Despite their efficiency in pain and inflammation alleviation, NSAIDs accumulate in the environment as chemical pollutants and have numerous genetic, morphologic, and functional negative effects on plants and animals. Ultrasound (US) therapy can improve pain, inflammation, and function in knee OA, without impact on environment, and with supplementary metabolic beneficial effects on cartilage compared to NSAIDs. These features recommend US therapy as alternative for NSAIDs use in knee OA treatment. 
  • 958
  • 01 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Antimicrobial Peptides-Silver Nanoparticles for Methicillin-Resistance Staphylococcus aureus
Antibiotics are regarded as a miracle in the medical field as it prevents disease caused by pathogenic bacteria. Since the discovery of penicillin, antibiotics have become the foundation for modern medical discoveries. However, bacteria soon became resistant to antibiotics, which puts a burden on the healthcare system. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has become one of the most prominent antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the world since 1961. MRSA primarily developed resistance to beta-lactamases antibiotics and can be easily spread in the healthcare system. Thus, alternatives to combat MRSA are urgently required. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), an innate host immune agent and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), are gaining interest as alternative treatments against MRSA. Both agents have broad-spectrum properties which are suitable candidates for controlling MRSA. Although both agents can exhibit antimicrobial effects independently, the combination of both can be synergistic and complementary to each other to exhibit stronger antimicrobial activity. The combination of AMPs and AgNPs also reduces their own weaknesses as their own, which can be developed as a potential agent to combat antibiotic resistance especially towards MRSA. 
  • 958
  • 25 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Heart Sounds Classification
The automated classification of heart sounds plays a significant role in the diagnosis of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). 
  • 957
  • 04 Jun 2021
Topic Review
COVID-19, Respiratory Diseases & Drug-Drug Interactions
The absence of COVID-19-targeted treatments has led scientist to exploit available scientific evidence for potential efficient drugs that may block biological pathways of SARS-CoV-2 and several molecules have been emerged as promising pharmacological agents. Then again, due to the criticality of the disease, it is important for healthcare providers in COVID-19 clinics to recognize potential drug-drug interactions (DDIs) that may lead to adverse drug reactions (ADRs) and additional burdens in patients' health status from the administration of these agents.
  • 956
  • 17 Dec 2021
Topic Review
NF-κB Pathway Inhibitors in Alzheimer’s Disease Treatment
The NF-κB family is a group of transcription factors that play a pivotal role in regulating various biological processes, including immune responses, inflammation, cell survival, and cellular differentiation. The involvement of the NF-κB pathway in immune system responses, inflammation, oxidative stress, and neuronal survival highlights its significance in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) progression.
  • 954
  • 25 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Predicting Pharmacokinetics of Pediatric Monoclonal Antibodies
Ethical regulations and limited paediatric participants are key challenges that contribute to a median delay of 6 years in paediatric mAb approval. To overcome these barriers, modelling and simulation methodologies have been adopted to design optimized paediatric clinical studies and reduce patient burden. The classical modelling approach in paediatric pharmacokinetic studies for regulatory submissions is to apply body weight-based or body surface area-based allometric scaling to adult PK parameters derived from a popPK model to inform the paediatric dosing regimen. However, this approach is limited in its ability to account for the rapidly changing physiology in paediatrics, especially in younger infants. To overcome this limitation, PBPK modelling, which accounts for the ontogeny of key physiological processes in paediatrics, is emerging as an alternative modelling strategy. 
  • 951
  • 24 May 2023
Topic Review
Antiepileptic Drugs
For drugs, such as antiepileptic drugs (AEDs), whose therapeutic or toxic effects are more closely related to blood levels than to a specific dose, monitoring of plasma levels plays a crucial role. Many drugs used in epilepsy therapy often cause acute poisonings (carbamazepine, oxcarbazepine, valproic acid, lamotrigine). AEDs do not have an ideal pharmacokinetic profile, which at the same time qualifies them to monitor both in the therapeutic and toxic aspects. Currently, a great benefit for patients using various AEDs is adjusting the dosage to their individual needs and monitoring sufficient blood concentrations. There is still a need to develop new, rapid methods that meet the validation criteria. This trend has been observed in the last few years in the bioanalysis of different type of biological samples, not only blood, serum or plasma, but also saliva and blood/serum/plasma dried spots technique.
  • 950
  • 01 Dec 2020
Topic Review
Oral subunit vaccine design
Many pathogens invade the host at the intestinal surface. To protect against these enteropatho-gens, the induction of intestinal secretory IgA (SIgA) responses is paramount. While systemic vaccination provides strong systemic immune responses, oral vaccination is the most efficient way to trigger protective SIgA responses. However, the development of oral vaccines, especially oral subunit vaccines, is challenging due to mechanisms inherent to the gut. Oral vaccines need to survive the harsh environment in the gastrointestinal tract, characterized by low pH and intestinal proteases and need to reach the gut-associated lymphoid tissues, which are protected by chemical and physical barriers that prevent efficient uptake. Furthermore, they need to surmount default tolerogenic responses present in the gut, resulting in suppression of immunity or tolerance. Several strategies have been developed to tackle these hurdles, such as delivery systems that protect vaccine antigens from degradation, strong mucosal adjuvants that induce robust immune responses and targeting approaches that aim to selectively deliver vaccine antigens towards specific immune cell populations.
  • 949
  • 12 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Histone Deacetylases
Histone acetylation status is considered a potential diagnostic biomarker for depression, while inhibitors of histone deacetylases (HDACs) have garnered interest as novel therapeutics.
  • 949
  • 08 Jun 2021
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