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Topic Review
Post-Stroke Psychiatric and Cognitive Symptoms
Stroke survivors in developing countries have been documented to be marked with intransigent and debilitating disabilities. To combat these dire circumstances, the World Health Organization (WHO) launched ‘Rehabilitation 2030′, which aspires to “scale up rehabilitation so that countries can be prepared to address the evolving needs of populations up to 2030” (p. 12). Owing to the suboptimal emergency services, critical care and existing rehabilitation services for individuals sustaining strokes in a majority of developing countries, stroke survivors have shown high mortality as well as disability and dependency rates. Cerebral hypoperfusion among stroke survivors (whether triggered by ischemic or hemorrhagic events, coupled with arrhythmias, myocardial infarction, pulmonary embolism, pericardial effusion, or bleeding) leads to structural and functional changes in the brain resulting from damage. Around 85% of strokes are classified as ischemic and 12% as hemorrhagic. Approximately 75% of stroke survivors experience physical disability, emotional symptoms and cognitive symptoms, or a combination of these.
  • 854
  • 27 Aug 2021
Topic Review
High-Resolution Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Cerebrovascular Disease
High-resolution magnetic resonance imaging (HRMRI) is the most important and popular vessel wall imaging technique for the direct assessment of vessel wall and cerebral arterial disease. It can identify the cause of stroke in high-risk plaques and differentiate the diagnosis of head and carotid artery dissection, including inflammation, Moya Moya disease, cerebral aneurysm, vasospasm after subarachnoid hemorrhage, reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome, blunt cerebrovascular injury, cerebral arteriovenous malformations, and other stenosis or occlusion conditions.
  • 854
  • 25 May 2023
Topic Review
Loneliness Influence in Adults’ Mental Health
Youths’ mental health is at a crisis level, with mental health problems doubling in the US since the pandemic began. To compound the mental health crisis, there is a global loneliness epidemic, with emerging adults worldwide experiencing some of the highest rates.
  • 854
  • 26 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Epigenetic Biomarkers for Neurodegenerative Disorders
Epigenetics is the study of heritable changes in gene expression that occur without alterations to the DNA sequence, linking the genome to its surroundings. The accumulation of epigenetic alterations over the lifespan may contribute to neurodegeneration.
  • 853
  • 19 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Spatial Olfactory Memory and Spatial Olfactory Navigation
Many studies have focused on navigation, spatial skills, and the olfactory system in comparative models, including those concerning the relationship between them and physical activity.
  • 853
  • 13 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Impairment of Blood-Brain Barrier in Alzheimer’s Disease
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disorder and its prevalence is increasing. Very few drugs effectively reduce AD symptoms and thus, a better understanding of its pathophysiology is vital to design new effective schemes. Presymptomatic neuronal damage caused by the accumulation of Amyloid β peptide and Tau protein abnormalities remains a challenge, despite recent efforts in drug development. Importantly, therapeutic targets, biomarkers, and diagnostic techniques have emerged to detect and treat AD. Of note, the compromised blood-brain barrier (BBB) and peripheral inflammation in AD are becoming more evident, being harmful factors that contribute to the development of the disease. Perspectives from different pre-clinical and clinical studies link peripheral inflammation with the onset and progression of AD.
  • 852
  • 15 Sep 2022
Biography
Suh Yoo-hun
Suh Yoo-hun (Korean: 서유헌, born February 8, 1948) is a South Korea n neuroscientist. His researches focus on neurodegeneration, especially on the discovery of genes and therapies for Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. Suh Yoo-hun was born in Seoul. He obtained his MD in 1973 and his PhD in medicine and pharmacology in 1981, both degrees at the college of medicine in Seoul Nati
  • 852
  • 05 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Blood-Based Biomarkers in Mild Traumatic Brain Injury
It is estimated that 90% of brain injuries fall into the category of mild traumatic brain injury (TBI). Mild TBI and concussion can have heterogeneous symptoms and serious consequences that develop over time with unpredictable levels of recovery. The diagnosis may not be made for multiple reasons, including due to patient hesitancy to undergo neuroimaging and inability of imaging to detect minimal damage. Biomarkers of nerve damage measured in blood plasma are increasingly promising as the sensitivity and accuracy of quantification improves. These biomarkers could fill the gap, making detection, diagnosis and prognosis easier and more precise, but the time needed to send blood to a laboratory for analysis made this impractical until point-of-care measurement became available. A handheld blood test is now on the market for diagnosis of concussion based on the specific blood biomarkers glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and ubiquitin carboxyl terminal hydrolase L1 (UCH-L1). Other blood biomarker assays are in development. 
  • 851
  • 14 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Neuroinflammation and Neurodegenerative Disease Pathogenesis
The immune system encompasses two wings, innate immunity and adaptive immunity, which both work in harmony to help the body to fight diseases. The branch of innate immunity (nonspecific, natural immunity) has various roles in physiological and pathological processes. In part, it forms the front line of defense against infections and is implicated in tissue maintenance and the clearance of apoptotic cells and cellular remains. It stimulates inflammation, which indiscriminately attacks bacteria, viruses and other invaders quickly and does not require the presence of an external challenge. On other hand, the branch of the “adaptive” immune system (specific or acquired immunity) targets pathogens or strange molecules specifically, identifying them and marking them for destruction, and retains memories of previous challenges. The natural immune response is the first initiator, and it is the spearhead functioning to counter any neuroinflammation in the brain, thus including the neuroinflammation at the forefront of the Alzheimer’s disease (AD) pathology.
  • 849
  • 25 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Extracellular Vesicles and Synaptic Dysfunction in Alzheimer’s Disease
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is considered by many to be a synaptic failure. Synaptic function is in fact deeply affected in the very early disease phases and recognized as the main cause of AD-related cognitive impairment. In the brain, extracellular vesicles (EVs) are secreted by all cell types, including glial cells and neurons. They can affect the synapse and propagate synaptic alterations among connected cells in a way that poses them as attractive therapeutic targets.
  • 849
  • 18 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Translational Stroke
The approach to reperfusion therapies in stroke patients is rapidly evolving, but there is still no explanation why a substantial proportion of patients have a poor clinical prognosis despite successful flow restoration. This issue of futile recanalization is explained here by three clinical cases which, despite complete recanalization, have very different outcomes. Preclinical research is particularly suited to characterize the highly dynamic changes in acute ischemic stroke and to identify potential treatment targets useful for clinical translation. This entry surveys the efforts taken so far to achieve mouse models capable to investigate of investigating the neurovascular underpinnings of futile recanalization. We highlight the translational potential of targeting tissue reperfusion in fully recanalized mouse models and of investigating the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms from subcellular to tissue scale. We suggest that stroke preclinical research should increasingly drive forward a continuous and circular dialogue with clinical research. When the preclinical and the clinical stroke research are consistent, translational success will follow.
  • 846
  • 28 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Melatonin in the Treatment of Clinical Perinatal Asphyxia
Melatonin is synthesized from serotonin, which, in turn, is synthesized from the amino acid tryptophan. In the pineal gland, tryptophan is taken from the blood and hydroxylated to 5-hydroxytryptophan, which is then decarboxylated to serotonin. Key functions of melatonin include regulating circadian patterns, such as fluctuations in body temperature and sleep–wake cycles, seasonal reproduction, boosting the immune system and regulating glucose levels. Melatonin has several hormonal functions, but this unique substance also has paracrine and autocrine effects and exhibits antioxidant and free radical scavenger properties.
  • 846
  • 09 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Molecular Pathways Involved in LRRK2-Linked Parkinson’s Disease
Parkinson’s disease is one of the most common neurodegenerative diseases affecting the ageing population. Studies have found that mutations in Leucine-rich-repeat-kinase 2 (LRRK2) are the most common cause of familial Parkinson’s disease (PD). Moreover, aberrant (higher) LRRK2 kinase activity has an influence in idiopathic PD as well. 
  • 845
  • 24 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Histone Methylation in Brain Aging
Epigenetic mechanisms play a primary role in the cellular damage associated with brain aging. Histone posttranslational modifications represent intrinsic molecular alterations essential for proper physiological functioning, while divergent expression and activity have been detected in several aspects of brain aging. Aberrant histone methylation has been involved in neural stem cell (NSC) quiescence, microglial deficits, inflammatory processes, memory impairment, cognitive decline, neurodegenerative diseases, and schizophrenia.
  • 845
  • 15 Jan 2024
Topic Review
Epidemiology and Genetics of Mitochondrial Myopathies
Mitochondrial myopathies represent a heterogeneous group of diseases caused mainly by genetic mutations to proteins that are related to mitochondrial oxidative metabolism. The International Workshop of Experts in Mitochondrial Diseases defined mitochondrial myopathies as a group of progressive muscle conditions, primarily caused by the impairment of oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS).
  • 844
  • 11 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Activation-Inhibition Coordination in Neuron, Brain, and Behavior Sequencing/Organization
Activation-inhibition coordination is considered a dynamic process that functions as a common mechanism in the synchronization and functioning of neurons, brain, behavior, and their sequencing/organization, including over these different scales. The concept has broad applicability, for example, in applications to maladaptivity/atypicality. Young developed the hypothesis to help explain the efficacy of right-hand reaching to grasp in 1-month-olds, a study that implicated that the left hemisphere is specialized for activation-inhibition coordination. This underlying left-hemisphere function, noted to characterize the left hemisphere right from birth, can explain equally its language and fine motor skills, for example. The right hemisphere appears specialized for less complex inhibitory skills, such as outright damping/inhibition. The hypotheses related to inhibition and hemispheric specialization that appear in the literature typically refer to right hemisphere skills in these regards.
  • 842
  • 17 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Neuroimaging-Based Brain Age Estimation
Neuroimaging is a widely available, less-invasive method to investigate the whole brain of humans, and with neuroimaging, the brain’s morphological and microstructural features can be obtained. A neuroimaging-based brain-age estimation can provide a reliable neuropsychiatric biomarker at the single-subject level. In addition, brain MRI—particularly T1-weighted structural Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)—is a widely available examination in most countries, which may support easier and wider clinical applications of brain-age analyses. Considering the utility, availability, and reproducibility of neuroimaging-based brain-age estimations for single patients, brain age can be expected to become a useful personalized biomarker in neuropsychiatry.
  • 840
  • 14 Nov 2022
Topic Review Peer Reviewed
Consciousness: A Strategy for Behavioral Decisions
Most multicellular animals have a nervous system that is based on the following three components: (1) sensory cells gather information and send it to processing units; (2) the processing units use the information to decide what action to take; and (3) effector neurons activate the appropriate muscles. Due to the importance of making the right decisions, evolution made profound advances in processing units. I review present knowledge regarding the evolution of neurological tools for making decisions, here referred to as strategies or algorithms. Consciousness can be understood as a particularly sophisticated strategy. It may have evolved to allow for the use of feelings as a ‘common currency’ to evaluate behavioral options. The advanced cognitive capacity of species such as humans further improved the usefulness of consciousness, yet in biological terms, it does not seem to be an optimal, fitness-enhancing strategy. A model for the gradual evolution of consciousness is presented. There is a somewhat arbitrary cutoff as to which animals have consciousness, but based on current information, it seems reasonable to restrict the term to amniotes.
  • 840
  • 11 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Leukodystrophy Imaging
Leukodystrophies, a group of rare demyelinating disorders, mainly affect the CNS. Clinical presentation of different types of leukodystrophies can be nonspecific, and thus, imaging techniques like MRI can be used for a more definitive diagnosis.
  • 840
  • 04 Feb 2024
Topic Review
Candidate Genes of Skeletal Muscle Energy Metabolism's Regulation
All biological processes associated with high sports performance, including energy metabolism, are influenced by genetics. DNA sequence variations in such genes, single nucleotide variants (SNVs), could confer genetic advantages that can be exploited to achieve optimal athletic performance. Ignorance of these features can create genetic “barriers” that prevent professional athletes from pursuing a career in sports.
  • 839
  • 29 Mar 2022
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