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Topic Review
Astrocytes
Astrocytes are cerebral cells present in number close to that on neurons (50-60 mld). For decades they were considered only a glue, offering a mechanical and metaboli
  • 1.8K
  • 06 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Mechanism of Parkinson’s Disease Drugs
Parkinson’s Disease (PD) is a progressive degenerative neurological disorder commonly presenting with symptoms of muscle rigidity, instability, tremor, bradykinesia (slow in movement), and lack of coordination. There are conventional drugs used in treating Parkinson’s disease such as levodopa, dopamine agonists, anticholinergics, catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) inhibitors, monoamine oxidase-B (MAO-B) inhibitors, and amantadine. Other drugs used in treating PD related psychosis include antipsychotics. 
  • 1.8K
  • 07 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Brain Trauma, Glucocorticoids and Neuroinflammation
Brain injury is a common cause of death and disability for people of all ages worldwide. Depending on the biomechanics, brain lesions may occur both in areas of the brain directly adjacent to the place of force application and in remote areas. The mechanisms of hippocampal damage are of particular importance, since they underlie late complications of traumatic brain injury (TBI), such as epilepsy, depression and cognitive impairment. The mechanisms of reorganization of neuronal networks in the hippocampus include long-lasting chronic neuroinflammation and secondary damage to the nervous tissue. Responses and disturbances of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis may play a critical role in late post-traumatic pathology, in particular by modulation of synaptic activity and neuroinflammation in the hippocampus.
  • 1.8K
  • 25 May 2022
Topic Review
Neurofibromatosis Type 1 and Brain
Neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1), the most frequent phakomatosis and one of the most common inherited tumor predisposition syndromes, is characterized by several manifestations that pervasively involve central and peripheral nervous system structures. 
  • 1.8K
  • 20 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Machine Learning in Intraoperative Neurophysiological Monitoring
Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring (IONM) is being applied to a wide range of surgical fields as a diagnostic tool to protect patients from neural injuries that may occur during surgery. However, several contributing factors complicate the interpretation of IONM, and it is labor- and training-intensive. Meanwhile, machine learning (ML)-based medical research has been growing rapidly, and many studies on the clinical application of ML algorithms have been published.
  • 1.8K
  • 24 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Deep Brain Stimulation Selection Criteria
Selection criteria for deep brain stimulation (DBS) in Parkinson’s disease (PD) still rely on a document published in 1999 called ‘Core Assessment Program for Surgical Interventional Therapies in Parkinson’s Disease’. These criteria are useful in supporting the selection of candidates but could be considered both restrictive and out-of-date. Starting from the original CAPSIT-PD document, we addressed the following topics which may impact the DBS selection process: early versus delayed DBS; the evolution of the levodopa challenge test; the relevance of axial symptoms; new focus on patient-centered outcome measures; the relevance of non-motor symptoms; and a new role for genetics.
  • 1.6K
  • 09 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Management of Poststroke Thalamic Pain
Poststroke thalamic pain (PS-TP), a type of central poststroke pain, has been challenged to improve the rehabilitation outcomes and quality of life after a stroke. It has been shown in 2.7–25% of stroke survivors; however, the treatment of PS-TP remains difficult, and in majority of them it often failed to manage the pain and hypersensitivity effectively, despite the different pharmacotherapies as well as invasive interventions. Central imbalance, central disinhibition, central sensitization, other thalamic adaptative changes, and local inflammatory responses have been considered as its possible pathogenesis. Allodynia and hyperalgesia, as well as the chronic sensitization of pain, are mainly targeted in the management of PS-TP. Commonly recommended first- and second-lines of pharmacological therapies, including traditional medications, e.g., antidepressants, anticonvulsants, opioid analgesics, and lamotrigine, were more effective than others. Nonpharmacological interventions, such as transcranial magnetic or direct current brain stimulations, vestibular caloric stimulation, epidural motor cortex stimulation, and deep brain stimulation, were effective in some cases/small-sized studies and can be recommended in the management of therapy-resistant PS-TP.
  • 1.6K
  • 15 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Nrf2 and Alzheimer’s Disease
Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) is an important transcription factor that reduces oxidative stress. When reactive oxygen species (ROS) or reactive nitrogen species (RNS) are detected, Nrf2 translocates from the cytoplasm into the nucleus and binds to the antioxidant response element (ARE), which regulates the expression of antioxidant and anti-inflammatory genes. Nrf2 impairments are observed in the majority of neurodegenerative disorders, including Alzheimer’s disease (AD). The classic hallmarks of AD include β-amyloid (Aβ) plaques, and neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs). Oxidative stress is observed early in AD and is a novel therapeutic target for the treatment of AD. The nuclear translocation of Nrf2 is impaired in AD compared to controls. Increased oxidative stress is associated with impaired memory and synaptic plasticity. The administration of Nrf2 activators reverses memory and synaptic plasticity impairments in rodent models of AD. Therefore, Nrf2 activators are a potential novel therapeutic for neurodegenerative disorders including AD. 
  • 1.6K
  • 10 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Neuroimaging Techniques Dedicated to Stroke
Stroke recovery processes include angiogenesis and neuroplasticity and advances in neuroimaging techniques may provide indirect description of this action and become quantifiable indicators of these processes as well as responses to the therapeutical interventions. This means that neuroimaging and neurophysiological methods can be used as biomarkers—to make a prognosis of the course of stroke recovery and define patients with great potential of improvement after treatment. This approach is most likely to lead to novel rehabilitation strategies based on categorizing individuals for personalized treatment.
  • 1.6K
  • 27 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Neural Stem Cell
Stem cells have extensive proliferative potential and the ability to differentiate into one or more mature cell types. The mechanisms by which stem cells accomplish self-renewal provide fundamental insight into the origin and design of multicellular organisms. These pathways allow the repair of damage and extend organismal life beyond that of component cells, and they probably preceded the evolution of complex metazoans.
  • 1.6K
  • 11 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Blood-Based Biomarkers in Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy Diagnosis
Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE) is a neurodegenerative disease consistently associated with repetitive traumatic brain injuries (TBIs), which makes multiple professions, such as contact sports athletes and the military, especially susceptible to its onset. There are currently no approved biomarkers to diagnose CTE, thus it can only be confirmed through a post-mortem brain autopsy. Several imaging and cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers have shown promise in the diagnosis. However, blood-based biomarkers can be more easily obtained and quantified, increasing their clinical feasibility and potential for prophylactic use. 
  • 1.6K
  • 29 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Epilepsy in Mitochondrial Diseases
Mitochondrial diseases are a heterogeneous group of diseases resulting from energy deficit and reduced adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production due to impaired oxidative phosphorylation. The manifestation of mitochondrial disease is usually multi-organ. Epilepsy is one of the most common manifestations of diseases resulting from mitochondrial dysfunction, especially in children.
  • 1.6K
  • 28 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Neurodegeneration with Brain Iron Accumulation
The syndromes of neurodegeneration with brain iron accumulation (NBIA) encompass a group of invalidating and progressive rare diseases that share the abnormal accumulation of iron in the basal ganglia. The onset of NBIA disorders ranges from infancy to adulthood. Main clinical signs are related to extrapyramidal features (dystonia, parkinsonism and choreoathetosis), and neuropsychiatric abnormalities. Ten NBIA forms are widely accepted to be caused by mutations in the genes PANK2, PLA2G6, WDR45, C19ORF12, FA2H, ATP13A2, COASY, FTL1, CP, and DCAF17. However, many patients remain without a genetic diagnosis, and therefore, there must be additional yet undiscovered NBIA genes. The genetic heterogeneity and the corresponding encoded proteins emphasize that several pathways are involved in NBIA syndromes: iron and lipid metabolism, mitochondrial dynamics, and autophagy. Moreover, for these forms as well as for many neurodegenerative conditions, mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress are common mechanisms of disease.
  • 1.6K
  • 22 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Classification of Dystonia
Dystonia is a movement disorder characterized by sustained or intermittent muscle contractions causing abnormal and often repetitive, movements, postures, or both. Dystonic movements are typically patterned, twisting, and may be tremulous. Dystonia is often initiated or worsened by voluntary action and associated with overflow muscle activation. Because of its wide clinical spectrum, dystonia is often underdiagnosed or misdiagnosed. In clinical practice, dystonia could often present in association with other movement disorders. An accurate physical examination is essential to describe the correct phenomenology. 
  • 1.6K
  • 02 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Visual Dysfunction in Parkinson’s Disease
Non-motor symptoms in Parkinson’s disease (PD) include ocular, visuoperceptive, and visuospatial impairments, which can occur as a result of the underlying neurodegenerative process. Ocular impairments can affect various aspects of vision and eye movement. Thus, patients can show dry eyes, blepharospasm, reduced blink rate, saccadic eye movement abnormalities, smooth pursuit deficits, and impaired voluntary and reflexive eye movements. Furthermore, visuoperceptive impairments affect the ability to perceive and recognize visual stimuli accurately, including impaired contrast sensitivity and reduced visual acuity, color discrimination, and object recognition. Visuospatial impairments are also remarkable, including difficulties perceiving and interpreting spatial relationships between objects and difficulties judging distances or navigating through the environment. Moreover, PD patients can present visuospatial attention problems, with difficulties attending to visual stimuli in a spatially organized manner. Moreover, PD patients also show perceptual disturbances affecting their ability to interpret and determine meaning from visual stimuli. And, for instance, visual hallucinations are common in PD patients.
  • 1.6K
  • 15 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Tremor in Parkinson’s Disease with Mechanical Devices
Parkinsonian tremors are sometimes confused with essential tremors or other conditions. Researchers conducted several studies on tremor evaluation using wearable sensors and devices, which may support an accurate diagnosis. Mechanical devices are also commonly used to treat tremors and have been actively researched and developed. Mechanical devices for tremor suppression include deep brain stimulation (DBS), electrical muscle stimulation, and orthosis. Adaptive DBS and optimization of stimulation parameters have been studied to improve treatment efficacy further. Due to developments using state-of-the-art techniques, effectiveness in diagnosing, evaluating, and suppressing tremors using these devices is satisfactorily high in many studies.
  • 1.6K
  • 09 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Gravitational Valves in Hydrocephalus Management
In the past decade, there has been a clear trend towards better outcomes in patients with hydro-cephalus, especially those with normal pressure hydrocephalus (NPH). This is partly due to the availability of more sophisticated hardware and a better understanding of implants. However, there is little evidence to show the superiority of a specific type of valve over another. The most commonly reported consequence of hydrodynamic mismatch is shunt over-drainage. Simple dif-ferential pressure valves, with a fixed opening pressure or even adjustable valves, lead to non-physiologic intraventricular pressure (IVP) as soon as the patient moves into an upright pos-ture. These valves fail to maintain IVP within physiological limits due to the changes in hydro-static pressure in the drainage system. To solve this problem more complex third-generation hy-drostatic valves have been designed. These gravitational devices aim to reduce flow through a shunt system when the patient is upright but there are important technical differences between them.
  • 1.6K
  • 28 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Seed Amplification Assays for α-Synuclein
Various disease-associated forms or strains of α-synuclein (αSynD) can spread and accumulate in a prion-like fashion during synucleinopathies such as Parkinson’s disease (PD), Lewy body dementia (DLB), and multiple system atrophy (MSA). This capacity for self-propagation has enabled the development of seed amplification assays (SAAs) that can detect αSynD in clinical samples. Notably, α-synuclein real-time quaking-induced conversion (RT-QuIC) and protein misfolding cyclic amplification (PMCA) assays have evolved as ultrasensitive, specific, and relatively practical methods for detecting αSynD in a variety of biospecimens including brain tissue, CSF, skin, and olfactory mucosa from synucleinopathy patients.  
  • 1.6K
  • 22 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Cation-Chloride Cotransporters
Stroke is one of the major culprits responsible for morbidity and mortality worldwide, and the currently available pharmacological strategies to combat this global disease are scanty. Cation-chloride cotransporters (CCCs) are expressed in several tissues (including neurons) and extensively contribute to the maintenance of numerous physiological functions including chloride homeostasis.
  • 1.6K
  • 07 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Paroxysmal Movement Disorders
Paroxysmal movement disorders (PMDs) are rare neurological diseases typically manifesting with intermittent attacks of abnormal involuntary movements.
  • 1.6K
  • 06 Nov 2020
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