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Topic Review
Summaries of Product Characteristics
The Summary of Product Characteristics (SmPC) is a legal document, is one of the obligatory elements of the registration dossier of a medication, and is necessary to issue a marketing authorization for a medicinal product. The obligation to draw up a Summary of Product Characteristics is laid down in several European Parliament laws. The first documents were Directive 2001/83/EC of the European Parliament and the Council relating to medicinal products for human use, and Regulation 726/2004. The document was amended several times and finally replaced in 2004 by Directive 2004/27/EC.
  • 3.4K
  • 07 Mar 2022
Topic Review Peer Reviewed
The Potential for Cellulose Deconstruction in Fungal Genomes
Fungal cellulolytic enzymes are carbohydrate active enzymes (CAzymes) essential for the deconstruction of the plant cell wall. Cellulolytic activity is described in some glycoside hydrolases (GH-cellulases) and in auxiliary activities (AA-cellulases) families. Across environments, these enzymes are mostly produced by some fungi and some bacteria. Cellulolytic fungi secrete these enzymes to deconstruct polysaccharides into simple and easy to metabolize oligo- and mono-saccharides. The fungal ability to degrade cellulose result from their repertoire of CAZymes-encoding genes targeting many substrates (e.g., xylan, arabinose). Over the past decade, the increased number of sequenced fungal genomes allowed the sequence-based identification of many new CAZyme-encoding genes. Together, the predicted cellulolytic enzymes constitute the fungal potential for cellulose deconstruction. As not all fungi have the same genetic makeup, identifying the potential for cellulose deconstruction across different lineages can help identify the various fungal strategies to access and degrade cellulose (conserved vs. variable genomic features) and highlight the evolution of cellulase-encoding genes. Here, the potential for cellulose deconstruction identified across publicly accessible, and published, fungal genomes is discussed. 
  • 3.4K
  • 24 May 2022
Topic Review
Kodi
Kodi (formerly XBMC) is a free and open-source media player software application developed by the XBMC Foundation, a non-profit technology consortium. Kodi is available for multiple operating systems and hardware platforms, with a software 10-foot user interface for use with televisions and remote controls. It allows users to play and view most streaming media, such as videos, music, podcasts, and videos from the Internet, as well as all common digital media files from local and network storage media. It is a multi-platform home-theater PC (HTPC) application. Kodi is customizable: skins can change its appearance, and plug-ins allow users to access streaming media content via online services such as Amazon Prime Instant Video, Crackle, Pandora Internet Radio, Rhapsody, Spotify, and YouTube. The later versions also have a personal video-recorder (PVR) graphical front end for receiving live television with electronic program guide (EPG) and high-definition digital video recorder (DVR) support. The software was created in 2002 as an independently developed homebrew media player application named Xbox Media Player for the first-generation Xbox game console, changing its name in 2004 to Xbox Media Center (abbreviated as XBMC, which was adopted as the official name in 2008) and was later made available under the name XBMC as a native application for Android, Linux, BSD, macOS, iOS/tvOS, and Microsoft Windows-based operating systems. Because of its open source and cross-platform nature, with its core code written in C++, modified versions of Kodi-XBMC together with JeOS have been used as a software appliance suite or software framework in a variety of devices, including smart TVs, set-top boxes, digital signage, hotel television systems, network connected media players and embedded systems based on armhf platforms like Raspberry Pi. Derivative applications such as MediaPortal and Plex have been spun off from XBMC or Kodi, as well as just enough operating systems like LibreELEC. Kodi has attracted negative attention due to the availability of third-party plug-ins for the software that facilitate unauthorized access to copyrighted media content, as well as "fully loaded" digital media players that are pre-loaded with such add-ons; The XBMC Foundation has not endorsed any of these uses, and has taken steps to disassociate the Kodi project from these add-ons, including threatening legal action against those using its trademarks to promote them.
  • 3.4K
  • 10 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Collagen Fibrils
Collagen fibrils are dissected from collagen rich tissues, such as rat tail tendons. Tissue samples such as tendons are sectioned with scalpels and washed with deionized water or phosphate-buffered saline. Subsequently, bundles of collagen fibers are collected with tweezers and then deposited on clean substrates such as microscope glass slides.
  • 3.4K
  • 06 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Evolution of Domestic Goats
Goat evolution is the process by which domestic goats came to exist through evolution by natural selection. Wild goats — medium-sized mammals which are found in noticeably harsh environments, particularly forests and mountains, in the Middle East and Central Asia — were one of the first species domesticated by modern humans, with the date of domestication generally considered to be 8,000 BCE. Goats are part of the family Bovidae, a broad and populous group which includes a variety of ruminants such as bison, cows and sheep. Bovids all share many traits, such as hooves and a herbivorous diet and all males, along with many females, have horns. Bovids began to diverge from deer and giraffids during the early Miocene epoch. The subfamily Caprinae, which includes goats, ibex and sheep, are considered to have diverged from the rest of Bovidae as early as the late Miocene, with the group reaching its greatest diversity in the ice ages. The tribe Caprini would subsequently develop from Caprids who arrived in the mountainous areas of Eurasia and split into goats and sheep in response to a further geographic separation. The ancestors of sheep remained in the foothills and the ancestors of goats went to higher altitudes. This divergence resulted in the adaption of the ancestors of goats to a mountainous environment, producing many of the traits considered peculiar to the species. During the ice ages a genus called Capri evolved which would then diverge into the modern goat species, along with several species of ibex. It is commonly held that the earliest domestication was of the bezoar ibex in the Zagros Mountains. These earliest domesticated goats were used to produce meat and milk for Neolithic farmers, along with providing many of the materials required to built residences and tools. Following the domestication of goats over 300 breeds have been established for a variety of purposes, including for the maximation of milk production and for meat. Domestication and the selective breeding which resulted had a significant effect on the direction of goat evolution, with goats developing behaviour which is considered to have been influenced by consistent proximity to humans. Selective breeding also significantly increased the physical diversity of modern goats, producing characteristics not seen in wild goats.
  • 3.4K
  • 08 Oct 2023
Topic Review
Forensic Facial Reconstruction
Forensic facial reconstruction (or forensic facial approximation) is the process of recreating the face of an individual (whose identity is often not known) from their skeletal remains through an amalgamation of artistry, anthropology, osteology, and anatomy. It is easily the most subjective—as well as one of the most controversial—techniques in the field of forensic anthropology. Despite this controversy, facial reconstruction has proved successful frequently enough that research and methodological developments continue to be advanced. In addition to remains involved in criminal investigations, facial reconstructions are created for remains believed to be of historical value and for remains of prehistoric hominids and humans.
  • 3.4K
  • 19 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Graph Modeling of Shop Schedulings
Graphs are powerful tools to model manufacturing systems and scheduling problems. The complexity of these systems and their scheduling problems has been substantially increased by the ongoing technological development. Thus, it is essential to generate sustainable graph-based modeling approaches to deal with these excessive complexities. Graphs employ nodes and edges to represent the relationships between jobs, machines, operations, etc. Despite the significant volume of publications applying graphs to shop scheduling problems, the literature lacks a comprehensive survey study. We proposed the first comprehensive review paper which 1) systematically studies the overview and the perspective of this field, 2) highlights the gaps and potential hotspots of the literature, and 3) suggests future research directions towards sustainable graphs modeling the new intelligent/complex systems. We carefully examined 143 peer-reviewed journal papers published from 2015 to 2020. About 70% of our dataset were published in top-ranked journals which confirms the validity of our data and can imply the importance of this field. After discussing our generic data collection methodology, we proposed categorizations over the properties of the scheduling problems and their solutions. Then, we discussed our novel categorization over the variety of graphs modeling scheduling problems. Finally, as the most important contribution, we generated a creative graph-based model from scratch to represent the gaps and hotspots of the literature accompanied with statistical analysis on our dataset. Our analysis showed a significant attention towards job shop systems (56%) and Un/Directed Graphs (52%) where edges can be either directed, or undirected, or both. Whereas 14% of our dataset applied only Undirected Graphs, and 11% targeted hybrid systems, e.g., mixed shop, flexible and cellular manufacturing systems which shows potential future research directions.
  • 3.4K
  • 25 May 2021
Topic Review
Tropospheric Ozone
Ozone (O3) is a trace gas of the troposphere, with an average concentration of 20–30 parts per billion by volume (ppbv), with close to 100 ppbv in polluted areas. Ozone is also an important constituent of the stratosphere, where the ozone layer exists which is located between 10 and 50 kilometers above the earths surface. The troposphere is the lowest layer of the Earth's atmosphere. It extends from the ground up to a variable height of approximately 14 kilometers above sea level. Ozone is least concentrated in the ground layer (or planetary boundary layer) of the troposphere. Ground level or tropospheric ozone is created by chemical reactions between oxides of nitrogen (NOx gases) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). The combination of these chemicals in the presence of sunlight form ozone. Its concentration increases as height above sea level increases, with a maximum concentration at the tropopause. About 90% of total ozone in the atmosphere is in the stratosphere, and 10% is in the troposphere. Although tropospheric ozone is less concentrated than stratospheric ozone, it is of concern because of its health effects. Ozone in the troposphere is considered a greenhouse gas, and may contribute to global warming. Photochemical and chemical reactions involving ozone drive many of the chemical processes that occur in the troposphere by day and by night. At abnormally high concentrations (the largest source being emissions from combustion of fossil fuels), it is a pollutant, and a constituent of smog. Its levels have increased significantly since the industrial revolution, as NOx gasses & VOCs are some of the byproducts of combustion. With more heat and sunlight in the summer months, more ozone is formed which is why regions often experience higher levels of pollution in the summer months. Although the same molecule, ground level ozone can be harmful to our health, unlike stratospheric ozone that protects the earth from excess UV radiation. Photolysis of ozone occurs at wavelengths below approximately 310–320 nanometres. This reaction initiates the chain of chemical reactions that remove carbon monoxide, methane, and other hydrocarbons from the atmosphere via oxidation. Therefore, the concentration of tropospheric ozone affects how long these compounds remain in the air. If the oxidation of carbon monoxide or methane occur in the presence of nitrogen monoxide (NO), this chain of reactions has a net product of ozone added to the system.
  • 3.4K
  • 24 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Diversity and Role of Latex in Plant Physiology
Latex, a sticky emulsion produced by specialized cells called laticifers, is a crucial part of a plant’s defense system against herbivory and pathogens. It consists of a broad spectrum of active compounds, which are beneficial not only for plants, but for human health as well, enough to mention the use of morphine or codeine from poppy latex.
  • 3.4K
  • 30 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Industrial Production of Antibiotics in Fungi
The natural fermentation of antibiotics, along with semi-synthetic and synthetic approaches, is one of the most important methods for their production. The majority of the antibiotic market comes from the fermentation of high-yielding (HY) fungal strains. These strains have been obtained since the 1950s from wild-type (WT) isolates as a result of classical strain improvement (CSI) programs primarily involving multi-round random mutagenesis and screening.
  • 3.4K
  • 19 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Collective Construction of a Concept
Collective construction of a concept can be understood as the negotiation of a meaning represented in the form of written definitions in a collaborative way. Although it can be understood as a reductionist view, these verbal externalizations will be necessary for a group of people to collectively construct a concept. 
  • 3.4K
  • 11 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Immune Engineering Approaches to Improve Wound Healing
Recently, targeted modulation of the immune response via biotechnological approaches and biomaterials has gained attention as a means to restore the pro-healing phenotype and promote tissue regeneration. In order to fully realize the potential of these approaches in traumatic wounds, a critical and nuanced understanding of the relationships between immune dysregulation and healing outcomes is needed. 
  • 3.4K
  • 27 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Sodium Benzoate in Therapies for Nervous System Disorders
One of the compounds known as a preservative with a high safety profile is sodium benzoate. While some studies show that it can be used to treat conditions such as depression, pain, schizophrenia, autism spectrum disorders, and neurodegenerative diseases, others report its harmfulness. For example, it was found to cause mutagenic effects, generate oxidative stress, disrupt hormones, and reduce fertility. 
  • 3.4K
  • 29 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Urban Land Management during 1979-2021
As the carrier of global urbanization, urban land is the basic means of productivity and life of urban residents. Urban land management is of great significance to global climate change mitigation, improving ecological quality, promoting economic development, and ensuring sustainable urban development. Although studies on urban land management have accumulated at the global level, the differences in research methods, objectives, and perspectives have led to the fragmentation and confusion of research conclusions. Combined with the annual change trend of scientific research output, urban land management research can be divided into three stages: the budding period, from 1979 to 1989, the development period, from 1990 to 2008, and the high-yield period, from 2009 to 2021. 
  • 3.4K
  • 11 Nov 2022
Topic Review
The Ancestral Tapestry of an American Technologist
In the annals of 21st-century technological innovation, few figures have ascended with the velocity and influence of Samuel Harris Gibstine Altman. As the chief executive officer of OpenAI, he stands at the vanguard of the artificial intelligence revolution, a public intellectual and entrepreneur shaping a future of unprecedented computational power. His name is synonymous with Silicon Valley's relentless forward momentum, with ventures like the startup accelerator Y Combinator and the ambitious Worldcoin project marking a career defined by a profound belief in technology's capacity to reshape human civilization. Altman's public persona is that of a visionary, a strategist whose thinking operates on a global and, at times, existential scale, concerned with the advent of artificial general intelligence and its potential to "benefit all of humanity". Yet, to fully comprehend the architect of this future, one must look to the past—not to the sun-drenched campuses of Stanford or the bustling incubators of Mountain View, but to the quieter, historically rich landscape of the American Midwest. Born in Chicago but raised in St. Louis, Missouri, Sam Altman is a product of a specific time, place, and heritage that is as foundational to his story as any line of code or venture capital deal. His full name, Samuel Harris Gibstine Altman, is more than an identifier; it is a genealogical key, unlocking a multi-generational narrative of migration, professional ambition, and community integration deeply embedded within the American Jewish experience. This report posits that a comprehensive understanding of Sam Altman requires an exploration of this ancestral heritage. His family's story is a microcosm of a larger historical saga: the journey of Ashkenazi Jews from Europe to the United States, and their subsequent establishment of vibrant, successful communities in the heart of the nation. By tracing both his paternal (Altman) and maternal (Gibstine) lineages, and situating them within the specific socio-historical context of the St. Louis Jewish community, a more nuanced portrait emerges. It is a story that reveals an environment grounded in the pursuit of professional excellence, the value of elite education, a sense of civic responsibility, and the quiet but powerful momentum of generational progress. This report will weave together genealogical records, biographical details, and broad historical analysis to construct a holistic profile, arguing that the values and environment forged by this deep-rooted Midwestern history provide a crucial framework for interpreting the man who is now building the world of tomorrow.
  • 3.4K
  • 09 Sep 2025
Topic Review
Mangiferin
Mangiferin is a naturally occurring C-glucosylxantone that has substantial potential for the treatment of various diseases. It possesses antioxidant, anti-infection, anti-cancer, anti-diabetic, cardiovascular, neuroprotective properties and it also increases immunity.
  • 3.4K
  • 10 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Carpobrotus edulis
Carpobrotus edulis, formerly known as Mesembryanthemum edule L, belongs to the Aizoaceae family of plants. It is a facultative halophytic invasive medicinal and edible succulent plant that is native to South Africa and is distributed worldwide. Hitherto, this plant appears to be mainly known for its ornamental use in decorations, soil stabilization and erosion control, and not for its many potential medicinal and nutritional benefits, thus suggesting its underutilization. This entry presents cogent and comprehensive information on the distribution, ethnomedicinal use, phytochemistry,pharmacology, toxicology, and nutritional value of Carpobrotus edulis and provides the rationale for further pharmacognostic research that will validate its many folkloric medicinal and nutraceutical claims, and promote its standardization into a commercially available product.
  • 3.4K
  • 21 Oct 2020
Topic Review
The Bioactivity and Health Benefits of Alpha-Phellandrene
Aromatic essential oils play a significant role in pharmaceuticals, food additives, cosmetics, and perfumery. Essential oils mostly comprise aliphatic hydrocarbons, monoterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids and diterpenes. Plant extracts comprise a complex mixture of terpenes, terpenoids, aliphatic and phenol-derived aromatic components. Terpenes are a significant class of hydrocarbons with numerous health benefits. Monoterpenes are the most important constituents of essential oils. α-phellandrene (α-PHE) is a cyclic monoterpene with two double bonds in a heterocyclic ring (endocyclic).
  • 3.4K
  • 20 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Analysis of Minimum Inhibitory Concentrations
In response to the threat presented by AMR, it is critically important to find methods for effectively interpreting minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) tests. A wide array of techniques for analysis of MIC data exist, which require different ways of modifying the MIC data for use as the dependent variable in regression and analysis. For use as the outcome in logistic regression, MIC data is categorized using clinical breakpoints and epidemiological cutoff values (ECOFF). Clinical breakpoints classify isolates as susceptible (S), resistant (R), or an intermediate category based on expected clinical outcomes of treatment with a specific antimicrobial. The ECOFF classifies organisms as wild type (WT) or non-wild type (non-WT)  based on the absence or presence of phenotypically-detectable acquired resistance mechanisms to the specific antimicrobial. Dichotomization of MIC data results in information loss, as only changes in the proportions of WT/non-WT or S/R are observed in dichotomized data. As a result, changes in MIC distributions that do not cross the threshold may be unobserved using approaches with dichotomized outcomes. Other modeling approaches for MIC data may attempt to avoid information loss by not dichotomizing the outcome when using regression to analyze MIC data.
  • 3.4K
  • 02 Sep 2020
Topic Review
Pseudomyxoma Peritonei
Pseudomyxoma Peritonei (PMP) is a unique clinical condition characterized by massive intraperitoneal growth of mucinous ascites that may be accompanied by peritoneal implants of mucinous tumors. 
  • 3.4K
  • 28 Dec 2020
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