Your browser does not fully support modern features. Please upgrade for a smoother experience.
Subject:
All Disciplines Arts & Humanities Biology & Life Sciences Business & Economics Chemistry & Materials Science Computer Science & Mathematics Engineering Environmental & Earth Sciences Medicine & Pharmacology Physical Sciences Public Health & Healthcare Social Sciences
Sort by:
Most Viewed Latest Alphabetical (A-Z) Alphabetical (Z-A)
Filter:
All Topic Review Biography Peer Reviewed Entry Video Entry
Topic Review
Brain Natriuretic Peptide
Brain natriuretic peptide (BNP), also known as B-type natriuretic peptide, is a hormone secreted by cardiomyocytes in the heart ventricles in response to stretching caused by increased ventricular blood volume. BNP is named as such because it was originally identified in extracts of pig brain. The 32-amino acid polypeptide BNP is secreted attached to a 76–amino acid N-terminal fragment in the prohormone called NT-proBNP (BNPT), which is biologically inactive. Once released, BNP binds to and activates the atrial natriuretic factor receptor NPRA, and to a lesser extent NPRB, in a fashion similar to atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) but with 10-fold lower affinity. The biological half-life of BNP, however, is twice as long as that of ANP, and that of NT-proBNP is even longer, making these peptides better targets than ANP for diagnostic blood testing. The physiologic actions of BNP are similar to those of ANP and include decrease in systemic vascular resistance and central venous pressure as well as an increase in natriuresis. The net effect of these peptides is a decrease in blood pressure due to the decrease in systemic vascular resistance and, thus, afterload. Additionally, the actions of both BNP and ANP result in a decrease in cardiac output due to an overall decrease in central venous pressure and preload as a result of the reduction in blood volume that follows natriuresis and diuresis.
  • 1.3K
  • 28 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Thymoma Classification
Thymomas are considered one of the most prevalent types of mediastinal epithelial tumors, which frequently develop in the anterior mediastinum.
  • 1.3K
  • 25 Oct 2023
Topic Review
Platelet-activating Factor
Platelet-activating factor, also known as PAF, PAF-acether or AGEPC (acetyl-glyceryl-ether-phosphorylcholine), is a potent phospholipid activator and mediator of many leukocyte functions, platelet aggregation and degranulation, inflammation, and anaphylaxis. It is also involved in changes to vascular permeability, the oxidative burst, chemotaxis of leukocytes, as well as augmentation of arachidonic acid metabolism in phagocytes. PAF is produced by a variety of cells, but especially those involved in host defense, such as platelets, endothelial cells, neutrophils, monocytes, and macrophages. PAF is continuously produced by these cells but in low quantities and production is controlled by the activity of PAF acetylhydrolases. It is produced in larger quantities by inflammatory cells in response to specific stimuli.
  • 1.3K
  • 18 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Oxidative Stress in CKD
Oxidative stress is important in the development and progression of diabetic nephropathy (DN). Many pathways and molecules are involved in the induction of oxidative stress in DN. The identification of biomarkers of oxidative stress contibutes to our understanding of development and progression of DN towards end-stage reanal disease.
  • 1.3K
  • 06 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Acute Myocardial Infarction in COVID-19
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has quickly become a worldwide health crisis. Although respiratory disease remains the main cause of morbidity and mortality in COVID patients, myocardial damage is a common finding. Many possible biological pathways may explain the relationship between COVID-19 and acute myocardial infarction (AMI). Increased immune and inflammatory responses, and procoagulant profile have characterized COVID patients. All these responses may induce endothelial dysfunction, myocardial injury, plaque instability, and AMI. Disease severity and mortality are increased by cardiovascular comorbidities. However, a marked fall in AMI admissions has been observed during lockdown, likely due, almost in part, to fear of in-hospital infection. Thus, attention should be also directed to psychological distress and fear, as COVID19 indirect effects on no-COVID diseases can be more harmful than the infection itself.
  • 1.3K
  • 26 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Adjustment Disorder
Adjustment disorder (AjD) is a mental and behavioral disorder, which is a maladaptive response to a psychosocial stressor that occurs when an individual has significant difficulty adjusting to or coping with a stressful psychosocial event. The maladaptive response usually involves otherwise normal emotional and behavioral reactions that manifest more intensely than usual (taking into account contextual and cultural factors), causing marked distress, preoccupation with the stressor and its consequences, and functional impairment. Diagnosis of AjD is quite common; there is an estimated incidence of 5–21% among psychiatric consultation services for adults. Adult women are diagnosed twice as often as are adult men. Among children and adolescents, girls and boys are equally likely to receive this diagnosis.:681 AjD was introduced into the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders in 1980. Prior to that, it was called "transient situational disturbance."
  • 1.3K
  • 17 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Cutaneous Reactions to Antidiabetic Agents
Diabetes is a common and complex disease affecting multiple organ systems throughout the body. With a consensus in care guidelines emphasizing the importance of glycemic control in determining the disease progression, people with diabetes worldwide have been placed on medication regimens targeting glucose stability from a variety of pathophysiologic pathways. Each of these medications also possesses its own potential for adverse events. 
  • 1.3K
  • 04 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Hemagglutinin (Influenza)
Influenza hemagglutinin (HA) or haemagglutinin[p] (British English) is a glycoprotein found on the surface of influenza viruses. Being a class I fusion protein, it is responsible for binding the virus to cells with sialic acid on the membranes, such as cells in the upper respiratory tract or erythrocytes. It is also responsible for the fusion of the viral envelope with the endosome membrane, after the pH has been reduced. The name "hemagglutinin" comes from the protein's ability to cause red blood cells (erythrocytes) to clump together ("agglutinate") in vitro.
  • 1.3K
  • 09 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Metabolic-Associated Fatty Liver Disease
Metabolic-Associated Fatty Liver Disease (MAFLD) is defined as the presence of hepatic steatosis (detected either histologically or by imaging techniques) in those individuals who have either type 2 diabetes or obesity.
  • 1.3K
  • 12 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Tissue Chips and Microphysiological Systems
Tissue Chips (TCs) and Microphysiological Systems (MPSs) that incorporate human cells are novel platforms to model disease and screen drugs and provide an alternative to traditional animal studies. This review highlights the basic definitions of TCs and MPSs, examines four major organs/tissues, identifies critical parameters for organization and function (tissue organization, blood flow, and physical stresses), reviews current microfluidic approaches to recreate tissues, and discusses current shortcomings and future directions for the development and application of these technologies. The organs emphasized are those involved in the metabolism or excretion of drugs (hepatic and renal systems) and organs sensitive to drug toxicity (cardiovascular system). This article examines the microfluidic/microfabrication approaches for each organ individually and identifies specific examples of TCs. This review will provide an excellent starting point for understanding, designing, and constructing novel TCs for possible integration within MPS.
  • 1.3K
  • 10 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Burn Size Assessment
In burn medicine, the percentage of the burned body surface area (TBSA-B) to the total body surface area (TBSA) is a crucial parameter to ensure adequate treatment and therapy. Inaccurate estimations of the burn extent can lead to wrong medical decisions resulting in considerable consequences for patients. These include, for instance, over-resuscitation, complications due to fluid aggregation from burn edema, or non-optimal distribution of patients. Due to the frequent inaccurate TBSA-B estimation in practice, objective methods allowing for precise assessments are required. 
  • 1.3K
  • 10 May 2021
Topic Review
Dual-Energy Computed Tomography of Liver
Dual-energy computed tomography (DECT) is an imaging technique based on data acquisition at two different energy settings. Recent advances in CT have allowed data acquisitions and simultaneous analyses of X-rays at two energy levels, and have resulted in novel developments in the field of abdominal imaging. The use of low and high X-ray tube voltages in DECT provide fused images that improve the detection of liver tumors owing to the higher contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR) of the tumor compared with the liver. The use of contrast agents in CT scanning improves image quality by enhancing the CNR and signal-to-noise ratio while reducing beam-hardening artifacts. DECT can improve detection and characterization of hepatic abnormalities, including mass lesions. The technique can also be used for the diagnosis of steatosis and iron overload.
  • 1.3K
  • 12 Oct 2021
Topic Review
CRAFFT Screening Test
The CRAFFT Screening Test is a short clinical assessment tool designed to screen for substance-related risks and problems in adolescents. CRAFFT stands for the key words of the 6 items in the second section of the assessment - Car, Relax, Alone, Forget, Friends, Trouble. As of 2016, an updated version of the CRAFFT known as the “CRAFFT 2.0” has been released. The older version of the questionnaire contains 9 items in total, answered in a "yes" or "no" format. The first three items (Part A) evaluate alcohol and drug use over the past year and the other six (Part B) ask about situations in which the respondent used drugs or alcohol and any consequences of the usage. The CRAFFT 2.0 screening tool begins with past-12-month frequency items (Part A), rather than the previous “yes/no” question for any use over the past year and the other six (Part B) ask about situations in which the respondent used drugs or alcohol and any consequences of usage. The CRAFFT can function as a self-report questionnaire or an interview to be administered by a clinician. Both employ a skip pattern: those whose Part A score is "0" (no use) answer the Car question only of Part B, while those who report any use in Part A also answer Part B's five CRAFFT questions. Each "yes" answer is scored as "1" point and a CRAFFT total score of two or higher identifies "high risk" for a substance use disorder and warrants further assessment.
  • 1.3K
  • 25 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Inflammation in TGFβ-Dependent EMT
Epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a complex cellular program known to be a crucial driver in the context of embryonic development, wound healing and tumour progression.
  • 1.3K
  • 03 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Immobilization and Stabilization of Bacteriophages
Phages are effective at targeting and killing bacterial strains of interest and have yielded encouraging results when administered as part of a tailored treatment to severely ill patients as a last resort.  The incorporation of bacteriophages into therapeutic formulations typically involves encapsulating them within a stabilizing substance. Immobilization refers to the chemical, physio-chemical or electrostatic binding of bacteriophages to a surface. 
  • 1.3K
  • 21 May 2021
Topic Review
TKS4 and TKS5 Scaffold Proteins
Scaffold proteins are typically thought of as multi-domain “bridging molecules.” They serve as crucial regulators of key signaling events by simultaneously binding multiple participants involved in specific signaling pathways. In the case of epidermal growth factor (EGF)-epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) binding, the activated EGFR contacts cytosolic SRC tyrosine-kinase, which then becomes activated. This process leads to the phosphorylation of SRC-substrates, including the tyrosine kinase substrates (TKS) scaffold proteins. The TKS proteins serve as a platform for the recruitment of key players in EGFR signal transduction, promoting cell spreading and migration. The TKS4 and the TKS5 scaffold proteins are tyrosine kinase substrates with four or five SH3 domains, respectively. Their structural features allow them to recruit and bind a variety of signaling proteins and to anchor them to the cytoplasmic surface of the cell membrane. TKS4 and TKS5 had been recognized for their involvement in cellular motility, reactive oxygen species-dependent processes, and embryonic development. Furthermore, TKS4 has also been implicated in the regulation of homeostasis of mature adipose and bone tissue.
  • 1.3K
  • 19 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Multidrug Resistance
Multidrug resistance (MDR) transporters belonging to either the ATP-Binding Cassette (ABC) or Major Facilitator Superfamily (MFS) groups are major determinants of clinical drug resistance in fungi. The overproduction of these proteins enables the extrusion of incoming drugs at rates that prevent lethal effects. The promiscuity of these proteins is intriguing because they export a wide range of structurally unrelated molecules. Research in the last two decades has used multiple approaches to dissect the molecular basis of the polyspecificity of multidrug transporters. With large numbers of drug transporters potentially involved in clinical drug resistance in pathogenic yeasts, this review focuses on the drug transporters of the important pathogen Candida albicans. This organism harbors many such proteins, several of which have been shown to actively export antifungal drugs. Of these, the ABC protein CaCdr1 and the MFS protein CaMdr1 are the two most prominent and have thus been subjected to intense site-directed mutagenesis and suppressor genetics-based analysis. Numerous results point to a common theme underlying the strategy of promiscuity adopted by both CaCdr1 and CaMdr1. 
  • 1.3K
  • 03 Feb 2021
Topic Review
EAPCRN
The East Asian Primary Care Research Network (EAPCRN), initially proposed by Professor Jae-Ho Lee who is the Chairman of the Korean Primary Care Research Group, was officially established during the 22nd World Organization of Family Doctors (WONCA) World Conference – "Primary Care in the Future: Professional Excellence" during 17-21 October 2018 in Seoul, South Korea. The EAPCRN inauguration seminar at WONCA Seoul 2018 was convened by Jae-Ho Lee (Korean Primary Care Research Group; The Catholic University of Korea) and co-convened by Harry H.X. Wang (Sun Yat-Sen University), Takuya Aoki (Kyoto University), and Chyi-Feng Jan (National Taiwan University).
  • 1.3K
  • 05 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Elevation (Emotion)
Elevation is an emotion elicited by witnessing virtuous acts of remarkable moral goodness. It is experienced as a distinct feeling of warmth and expansion that is accompanied by appreciation and affection for the individual whose exceptional conduct is being observed. Elevation motivates those who experience it to open up to, affiliate with, and assist others. Elevation makes an individual feel lifted up and optimistic about humanity.
  • 1.3K
  • 24 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Muscle-Related Plectinopathies
Plectin is a giant cytoskeletal crosslinker and intermediate filament stabilizing protein. Mutations in the human plectin gene (PLEC) cause several rare diseases that are grouped under the term plectinopathies. The most common disorder is autosomal recessive disease epidermolysis bullosa simplex with muscular dystrophy (EBS-MD), which is characterized by skin blistering and progressive muscle weakness. Besides EBS-MD, PLEC mutations lead to EBS with nail dystrophy, EBS-MD with a myasthenic syndrome, EBS with pyloric atresia, limb-girdle muscular dystrophy type R17, or EBS-Ogna.
  • 1.3K
  • 08 Apr 2022
  • Page
  • of
  • 48
Featured Entry Collections
>>

Featured Reprints

>>
Encyclopedia of Digital Society, Industry 5.0 and Smart City
Encyclopedia of Engineering
Encyclopedia of Social Sciences
Encyclopedia of Medieval Royal Iconography
Academic Video Service
Feedback