Effects of Stress on Memory

Version	Summary	Created by	Modification	Content Size	Created at	Operation
1	handwiki	Dean Liu	--	5638	2022-10-27 01:35:38

The content is sourced from: https://handwiki.org/wiki/Medicine:Effects_of_stress_on_memory

The effects of stress on memory include interference with a person's capacity to encode memory and the ability to retrieve information. During times of stress, the body reacts by secreting stress hormones into the bloodstream. Stress can cause acute and chronic changes in certain brain areas which can cause long-term damage. Over-secretion of stress hormones most frequently impairs long-term delayed recall memory, but can enhance short-term, immediate recall memory. This enhancement is particularly relative in emotional memory. In particular, the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex and the amygdala are affected. One class of stress hormone responsible for negatively affecting long-term, delayed recall memory is the glucocorticoids (GCs), the most notable of which is cortisol. Glucocorticoids facilitate and impair the actions of stress in the brain memory process. Cortisol is a known biomarker for stress. Under normal circumstances, the hippocampus regulates the production of cortisol through negative feedback because it has many receptors that are sensitive to these stress hormones. However, an excess of cortisol can impair the ability of the hippocampus to both encode and recall memories. These stress hormones are also hindering the hippocampus from receiving enough energy by diverting glucose levels to surrounding muscles. Stress affects many memory functions and cognitive functioning of the brain. There are different levels of stress and the high levels can be intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic stress level is triggered by a cognitive challenge whereas extrinsic can be triggered by a condition not related to a cognitive task. Intrinsic stress can be acutely and chronically experienced by a person. The varying effects of stress on performance or stress hormones are often compared to or known as "inverted-u" which induce areas in learning, memory and plasticity. Chronic stress can affect the brain structure and cognition. Studies considered the effects of both intrinsic and extrinsic stress on memory functions, using for both of them Pavlovian conditioning and spatial learning. In regard to intrinsic memory functions, the study evaluated how stress affected memory functions that was triggered by a learning challenge. In regard to extrinsic stress, the study focused on stress that was not related to cognitive task but was elicited by other situations. The results determined that intrinsic stress was facilitated by memory consolidation process and extrinsic stress was determined to be heterogeneous in regard to memory consolidation.[clarification needed] Researchers found that high stress conditions were a good representative of the effect that extrinsic stress can cause on memory functioning.[clarification needed] It was also proven that extrinsic stress does affect spatial learning whereas acute extrinsic stress does not.[clarification needed]

spatial learning glucocorticoids prefrontal cortex

References

Pendick, D. (2002). Memory loss and the brain. Retrieved from http://www.memorylossonline.com/spring2002/stress.htm
Ziegler, D; Herman, J (2002). "Neurocircuitry of stress integration: anatomical pathways regulating the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical axis of the rat". Integrative and Comparative Biology 42 (3): 541–551. doi:10.1093/icb/42.3.541. PMID 21708749. https://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Ficb%2F42.3.541
Viau, V.; Soriano, L.; Dallman, M (2001). "Androgens alter corticotropin releasing hormone and arginine vasopressin mrna within forebrain sites known to regulate activity in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis". Journal of Neuroendocrinology 13 (5): 442–452. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2826.2001.00653.x. PMID 11328455. https://dx.doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1365-2826.2001.00653.x
Antoni F. Hypothalamic control of adrenocorticotropin secretion: advances since the discovery of 41-residue corticotropin-releasing factor" Endo Rev 1986; 7: 351 – 378.
Talbott, S. (2007). The cortisol connection. Alameda, CA: Hunter House Inc. https://books.google.com/books?id=D8VE11Zcp74C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false
Scott, L; Dinan, T (1998). "Vasopressin and the regulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis function: implications for the pathophysiology of depression". Life Sciences 62 (22): 1985–1998. doi:10.1016/s0024-3205(98)00027-7. PMID 9627097. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0024-3205%2898%2900027-7
Prange, A (1999). "Thyroid axis sustaining hypothesis of posttraumatic stress disorder". Psychosomatic Medicine 61 (2): 139–140. doi:10.1097/00006842-199903000-00002. PMID 10204963. https://dx.doi.org/10.1097%2F00006842-199903000-00002
Goldstein, E.B. (2015). Cognitive Psychology: connecting mind, research, and everyday experience. Boston, MA, USA: Cengage Learning Inc.. ISBN 978-1337408271.
Pasquali, R (2006). "The Biological Balance between Psychological Well-Being and Distress: A Clinician's Point of View". Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics 75 (2): 69–71. doi:10.1159/000090890. PMID 16508341. https://dx.doi.org/10.1159%2F000090890
Parkad, C.R.; Campbella, A.M.; Diamond, D.M. (2001). "Chronic psychosocial stress impairs learning and memory and increases sensitivity to yohimbine in adult rats". Biological Psychology 50 (12): 994–1004. doi:10.1016/s0006-3223(01)01255-0. PMID 11750896. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0006-3223%2801%2901255-0
Peavy, G. M.; Salmon, D. P.; Jacobson, M. W.; Hervey, A.; Gamst, A. C.; Wolfson, T.; Patterson, T. L.; Goldman, S. et al. (2009). "Effects of chronic stress on memory decline in cognitively normal and mildly impaired older adults.". The American Journal of Psychiatry 166 (12): 1384–91. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09040461. PMID 19755573. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2864084
Henckens, M. J. A. G.; Hermans, E. J.; Pu, Z.; Joels, M.; Fernandez, G. (12 August 2009). "Stressed Memories: How Acute Stress Affects Memory Formation in Humans". Journal of Neuroscience 29 (32): 10111–10119. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1184-09.2009. PMID 19675245. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=6664979
Peavy, G. M.; Salmon, D. P.; Jacobson, M. W.; Hervey, A.; Gamst, A. C.; Wolfson, T.; Patterson, T. L.; Goldman, S. et al. (15 September 2009). "Effects of Chronic Stress on Memory Decline in Cognitively Normal and Mildly Impaired Older Adults". American Journal of Psychiatry 166 (12): 1384–1391. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09040461. PMID 19755573. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2864084
Neupert, S.D.; Almeida, D.M.; Mroczek, D.K.; Spiro, A. (2006). "Daily Stressors and Memory Failure in a Naturalistic Setting: Findings from the VA Normative Aging Study". Psychology and Aging 21 (2): 424–429. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.21.2.424. PMID 16768588. https://dx.doi.org/10.1037%2F0882-7974.21.2.424
Yuen, E. Y.; Liu, W.; Karatsoreos, I. N.; Feng, J.; McEwen, B. S.; Yan, Z. (2009-07-29). "Acute stress enhances glutamatergic transmission in prefrontal cortex and facilitates working memory". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106 (33): 14075–14079. doi:10.1073/pnas.0906791106. ISSN 0027-8424. PMID 19666502. Bibcode: 2009PNAS..10614075Y. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2729022
Cahill, L. (July 2003). "Enhanced human memory consolidation with post-learning stress: Interaction with the degree of arousal at encoding". Learning & Memory 10 (4): 270–274. doi:10.1101/lm.62403. PMID 12888545. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=202317
Quervain, De (2009). "Glucocorticoids and the regulation of memory in health and disease". Front Neuroendocrinol 30 (3): 358–70. doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2009.03.002. PMID 19341764. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.yfrne.2009.03.002
Smeets, T.; Giesbrecht, T.; Jelicic, M.; Merckelbach, H. (2007). "Context-dependent enhancement of declarative memory performance following acute psychosocial stress". Biological Psychology 76 (1–2): 116–123. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2007.07.001. PMID 17689852. https://cris.maastrichtuniversity.nl/portal/en/publications/contextdependent-enhancement-of-declarative-memory-performance-following-acute-psychosocial-stress(5f0fae1a-a4f5-475e-ba83-6580f3324338).html.
Jelicic, M.; Geraerts, E.; Merckelbach, H.; Guerrieri, R. (2004). "Acute Stress Enhances Memory For Emotional Words, But Impairs Memory For Neutral Words". International Journal of Neuroscience 114 (10): 1343–1351. doi:10.1080/00207450490476101. PMID 15370191. https://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F00207450490476101
Henckens, M. J. A. G.; Hermans, E. J.; Pu, Z.; Joels, M.; Fernandez, G. (12 August 2009). "Stressed Memories: How Acute Stress Affects Memory Formation in Humans". Journal of Neuroscience 29 (32): 10111–10119. doi:10.1523/jneurosci.1184-09.2009. PMID 19675245. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=6664979
"Stress, memory and the amygdala.". Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10 (6): 423–33. June 2009. doi:10.1038/nrn2651. PMID 19469026. https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrn2651
Henckens, M. J. A. G.; Hermans, E. J.; Pu, Z.; Joëls, M.; Fernández, G. (2009). "Stressed Memories: How Acute Stress Affects Memory Formation in Humans". Journal of Neuroscience 29 (32): 10111–10119. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1184-09.2009. PMID 19675245. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=6664979
"Short-term Stress Can Affect Learning And Memory" (in en). https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/03/080311182434.htm.
"Emotional Stress and Eyewitness Memory: A Critical Review". https://psycnet.apa.org/buy/1993-04374-001.
Baddeley, A., Eysenck, M. W. & Anderson, M. C. (2010). Memory. Psychology Press: New York.
O'Hare, D. (1999). Human performance in general aviation. Aldershot, England: Ashgate.
Duncko, R.; Johnson, L.; Merikangas, K.; Grillon, C. (2009). "Working memory performance after acute exposure to the cold pressor stress in healthy volunteers". Neurobiology of Learning and Memory 91 (4): 377–381. doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2009.01.006. PMID 19340949. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2696884
Lee, J. H. (1999). "Test anxiety and working memory". Journal of Experimental Education 67 (3): 218–225. doi:10.1080/00220979909598354. https://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F00220979909598354
Qin, S; Cousijn, H; Rijpkema, M; Luo, J; Franke, B; Hermans, E. J.; Fernández, G (2009). "The effect of moderate acute psychological stress on working memory-related neural activity is modulated by a genetic variation in catecholaminergic function in humans". Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience 6: 16. doi:10.3389/fnint.2012.00016. PMID 22593737. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=3350069
de Quervain et al., Stress and glucocorticoids impair retrieval of long-term spatial memory. Nature, 394, 787-790 (1998) http://www.nature.com/
de Quervain et al., Acute cortisone administration impairs retrieval of long-term declarative memory in humans. Nature Neuroscience, 3, 313-314 (2000) http://www.nature.com/neuro/index.html
Park, C. R.; Zoladz, P. R.; Conrad, C. D.; Fleshner, M.; Diamond, D.M. (2008). "Acute predator stress impairs the consolidation and retrieval of hippocampus-dependent memory in male and female rats". Learning and Memory 15 (4): 271–280. doi:10.1101/lm.721108. PMID 18391188. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2327269
Marin, M.; Pilgrim, K.; Lupien, S. J. (2010). "Modulatory effects of stress on reactivated emotional memories". Psychoneuroendocrinology 35 (9): 1388–1396. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2010.04.002. PMID 20471179. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.psyneuen.2010.04.002
Schwabe, Lars; Römer, Sonja; Richter, Steffen; Dockendorf, Svenja; Bilak, Boris; Schächinger, Hartmut (2009). "Stress effects on declarative memory retrieval are blocked by a β-adrenoceptor antagonist in humans". Psychoneuroendocrinology 34 (3): 446–454. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2008.10.009. PMID 19028019. http://www.cog.psy.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/papers/2008/Schwabe2008c_PNEC.pdf.
Bremner, J.D.; Krystal, J.H; Southwick, S.M.; Charney, D.S. (1995). "Functional neuroanatomical correlates of the effects of stress on memory". Journal of Traumatic Stress 8 (4): 527–553. doi:10.1007/bf02102888. PMID 8564272. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf02102888
Moradi, A. R., Herlihy, J., Yasseri, G., Shahraray, M., Turner, S. & Dalgleish, T. (2008). Specifically of episodic memory and semantic memory aspects of autobiographical memory in relation to symptoms of post traumatic stress disorder. Science Direct: 127, 645-653.
Schwabe, Lars; Wolf, Oliver T. (2010). "Stress impairs the reconsolidation of autobiographical memories". Neurobiology of Learning and Memory 94 (2): 153–157. doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2010.05.001. PMID 20472089. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.nlm.2010.05.001
Daleiden, L (1998). "Childhood anxiety and memory functioning: a comparison of systematic and processing accounts". Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 68 (3): 216–235. doi:10.1006/jecp.1997.2429. PMID 9514771. https://dx.doi.org/10.1006%2Fjecp.1997.2429
Derryberry, D.; Reed, M. A. (1994). "Temperament and attention: Orienting toward and away from positive and negative signals". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 66 (6): 1128–1130. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.66.6.1128. PMID 8046580. https://dx.doi.org/10.1037%2F0022-3514.66.6.1128
Gaulin, S. J. C. & McBurney, D. H. (2004). Evolutionary Psychology. Pearson: New Jersey, 2.
Vriends, N.; Michael, T.; Blechert, J.; Meyer, A.H.; Marhraf, J.; Wilhelm, F. H. (2011). "The influence of state anxiety on the acquisition and extinction of fear". Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 42 (1): 46–53. doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2010.09.001. PMID 21074006. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jbtep.2010.09.001
Zinbarg, R. E.; Mohlman, J. (1998). "Individual differences in the acquisition of affectivity valenced associations". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 (4): 1024–1040. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.4.1024. PMID 9569657. https://dx.doi.org/10.1037%2F0022-3514.74.4.1024
Dickstein, D.P.; Finger, E.C.; Brotman, B.A.; Rich, D.S.; Blair, J.R.; Leibenloft, E.L. (2010). "Impaired probabilistic reversal learning in youths with mood and anxiety disorders". Psychological Medicine 40 (7): 1089–1100. doi:10.1017/s0033291709991462. PMID 19818204. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=3000432
Blair, R.J.; Cipolotti, L. (2000). "Impaired social responses. A case of sociopathy". Brain 123 (6): 1122–1141. doi:10.1093/brain/123.6.1122. PMID 10825352. https://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Fbrain%2F123.6.1122
Hitch, G. J. (1985). Short-term memory and information processing in humans and animals: Towards an integrative framework. In L.-G. Nilsson & T. Archer (Eds.), Series in comparative cognition and neuroscience. Perspectives on learning and memory (p. 119–136). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Figueiredo, Helmer F.; Bodie, Bryan L.; Tauchi, Miyuki; Dolgas, C. Mark; Herman, James P. (2003-12-01). "Stress Integration after Acute and Chronic Predator Stress: Differential Activation of Central Stress Circuitry and Sensitization of the Hypothalamo-Pituitary-Adrenocortical Axis" (in en). Endocrinology 144 (12): 5249–5258. doi:10.1210/en.2003-0713. ISSN 0013-7227. PMID 12960031. https://dx.doi.org/10.1210%2Fen.2003-0713
Woodson, J. C.; Macintosh, D.; Flesner, M.; Diamond, D. M. (2003). "Emotion-Induced Amnesia in Rats: Working Memory-Specific Impairment, Corticosterone-Memory Correlation, and Fear Versus Arousal Effects on Memory". Learning and Memory 10 (5): 326–336. doi:10.1101/lm.62903. PMID 14557605. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=217998
Sundada, H.; Horikoshi, T.; Lukawiak, K.; Sakakibara, M. (2010). "Increase in excitability of RPeD11 results in memory enhancement of juvenile and adult Lymnaea stagnalis by predator-induced stress". Neurobiology of Learning and Memory 94 (2): 269–277. doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2010.06.005. PMID 20601028. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.nlm.2010.06.005
Maeng, L. Y.; Waddell, J.; Shors, T. J. (2010). "The Prefrontal Cortex Communicates with the Amygdala to Impair Learning after Acute Stress in Females but Not in Males". The Journal of Neuroscience 30 (48): 16188–16196. doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2265-10.2010. PMID 21123565. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=3073607
Jackson, E.D.; Payne, J.D.; Nadel, L.; Jacobs, W.J. (2005). "Stress differentially modulates fear conditioning in healthy men and women". Biological Psychiatry 59 (6): 516–522. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.08.002. PMID 16213468. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.biopsych.2005.08.002
National Institute of Mental Health, . (2011). Post-traumatic stress disorder (ptsd). Retrieved from http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd/index.shtml
PTSD Alliance, Initials. (2001). Post traumatic stress disorder. Retrieved from http://www.ptsdalliance.org/about_symp.html
Mayo Clinic Staff, . (2009). Post-traumatic stress disorder (ptsd) . Retrieved from http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/post-traumatic-stress-disorder/DS00246
Bremner, J. Douglas (1 November 2007). "Neuroimaging in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Other Stress-Related Disorders". Neuroimaging Clinics of North America 17 (4): 523–538. doi:10.1016/J.NIC.2007.07.003. PMID 17983968. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2729089
Sandi, Carmen; Pinelo-Nava, M. Teresa (1 January 2007). "Stress and Memory: Behavioral Effects and Neurobiological Mechanisms". Neural Plasticity 2007: 78970. doi:10.1155/2007/78970. PMID 18060012. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1950232
Aerni, A; Traber, R; Hock, C; Roozendaal, B; Schelling, G; Papassotiropoulos, A; Nitsch, RM; Schnyder, U et al. (2004). "Low-dose cortisol for symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder". Am J Psychiatry 161 (8): 1488–90. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.161.8.1488. PMID 15285979. https://dx.doi.org/10.1176%2Fappi.ajp.161.8.1488
Bremner, J. Douglas; Krystal, John H.; Southwick, Steven M.; Charney, Dennis S. (1995). "Functional Neuroanatomical Correlates of the Effects of Stress on Memory". Journal of Traumatic Stress 8 (4): 527–553. doi:10.1007/bf02102888. PMID 8564272. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf02102888
Moradi, A. R.; Doost, H. T. N.; Taghavi, M. R.; Yule, W.; Dalgleish, T. (1999). "Everyday memory deficits in children and adolescents with ptsd: performance on the rivermead behavioural memory test". Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 40 (3): 357–361. doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00453. PMID 10190337. https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2F1469-7610.00453
National Institute of Mental Health, . (2011). Social phobia (social anxiety disorder). Retrieved from http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/social-phobia-social-anxiety-disorder/index.shtml
Anxiety disorders association of america, Initials. (2010). Social anxiety disorder. Retrieved from http://www.adaa.org/understanding-anxiety/social-anxiety-disorder
Mayo Clinic Staff, . (2009). Social anxiety disorder (social phobia). Retrieved from http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/social-anxiety-disorder/DS00595
Soravia, LM; Heinrichs, M; Aerni, A; Maroni, C; Schelling, G; Ehlert, U; Roozendaal, B; de Quervain, DJ (2006). "Glucocorticoids reduce phobic fear in humans". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 103 (14): 5585–90. doi:10.1073/pnas.0509184103. PMID 16567641. Bibcode: 2006PNAS..103.5585S. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1414637
De Quervain, DJ; Bentz, D; Michael, T; Bolt, OC; Wiederhold, BK; Margraf, J; Wilhelm, FH (2011). "Glucocorticoids enhance extinction-based psychotherapy". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 108 (16): 6621–5. doi:10.1073/pnas.1018214108. PMID 21444799. Bibcode: 2011PNAS..108.6621D. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=3081033
Mellings, T. M. B.; Alden, L. E. (2000). "Cognitive processes in social anxiety: the effects of self- focus, rumination and anticipatory processing". Behaviour Research and Therapy 38 (3): 243–257. doi:10.1016/s0005-7967(99)00040-6. PMID 10665158. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0005-7967%2899%2900040-6
Stravynski, A.; Bond, S.; Amado, D. (2004). "Cognitive causes of social phobia: a critical appraisal". Clinical Psychology Review 24 (4): 421–440. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2004.01.006. PMID 15245829. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cpr.2004.01.006
National Institute of Mental Health. (2011). Obsessive-compulsive disorder, ocd. Retrieved from http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/obsessive-compulsive-disorder-ocd/index.shtml
Mayo Clinic Staff. (2010). Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Retrieved from http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/obsessive-compulsive-disorder/DS00189
D.J. Stein. "Obsessive-compulsive disorder". The Lancet (August 2002), 360 (9330), pg. 397-405
Eddy, M, F., & Walbroehl, G, S. (1998). Recognition and treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Retrieved from http://www.aafp.org/afp/980401ap/eddy.html
Wilhelm, S.; McNally, R.J.; Baer, L.; Florin, I. (1996). "Directed forgetting in obsessive-compulsive disorder". Behaviour Research and Therapy 34 (8): 633–641. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(96)00040-x. PMID 8870289. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2F0005-7967%2896%2900040-x
Tolin, D. F.; Abramowitz, J. S.; Brigidi, B. D.; Amir, N.; Street, G. P. (2001). "Memory and memory confidence in obsessive–compulsive disorder". Behaviour Research and Therapy 39 (8): 913–927. doi:10.1016/s0005-7967(00)00064-4. PMID 11480832. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0005-7967%2800%2900064-4

©Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons-Attribution ShareAlike (CC BY-SA) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.

Upload a video for this entry

Information

Subjects: Others

Contributor MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :

HandWiki

View Times: 1.3K

Entry Collection: HandWiki

Update Date: 27 Oct 2022

Table of Contents

Video Upload Options

References