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Topic Review
HIV Infection
HIV-1 (human immunodeficiency virus type 1) is one of the most dangerous and widespread infectious viruses and causes the deaths of millions of people. The global spread of this virus, which has taken on the character of a pandemic, has made HIV a central health problem worldwide. Currently, thanks to the active development of innovative forms of antiretroviral drugs and increased access to effective means of prevention, HIV infection has become a non-fatal, and in many cases, chronic disease. Thus, the life expectancy of people living with HIV  (PLWH) has significantly increased. At the same time, in the population of PLWH, in addition to the consistenly observed higher rates of morbidity and mortality from cardiovascular diseases, various metabolic complications, and non-AIDS-related malignancies, there is a clear trend towards the spread of neurocognitive disorders.  
  • 845
  • 16 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Zika Virus Properties
ZIKV belongs to the genus of Flavivirus in the Flaviviridae family that comprises multiple deadly human pathogens, including the dengue virus (DENV), Japanese encephalitis (JEV), the yellow fever virus (YFV), and the West Nile virus (WNV). ZIKV infection is known to result in severe manifestations including neurological complications in adults and congenital abnormalities in newborns.
  • 844
  • 08 Mar 2023
Topic Review
Aptamers in Virology - HIV
Aptamers are oligonucleotides or peptide molecules that bind specifically to a variety of targets, often inhibiting protein–protein interactions. 
  • 843
  • 13 Oct 2021
Topic Review
First Alternavirus Identified in Fusarium oxysporum
A novel mycovirus named Fusarium oxysporum alternavirus 1(FoAV1) was identified as infecting Fusarium oxysporum strain BH19, which was isolated from a fusarium wilt diseased stem of Lilium brownii. The genome of FoAV1 contains four double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) segments (dsRNA1, dsRNA 2, dsRNA 3 and dsRNA 4, with lengths of 3.3, 2.6, 2.3 and 1.8 kbp, respectively). Additionally, dsRNA1 encodes RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp), and dsRNA2- dsRNA3- and dsRNA4-encoded hypothetical proteins (ORF2, ORF3 and ORF4), respectively. A homology BLAST search, along with multiple alignments based on RdRp, ORF2 and ORF3 sequences, identified FoAV1 as a novel member of the proposed family "Alternaviridae". Evolutionary relation analyses indicated that FoAV1 may be related to alternaviruses, thus dividing the family "Alternavirida" members into four clades. In addition, we determined that dsRNA4 was dispensable for replication and may be a satellite-like RNA of FoAV1—and could perhaps play a role in the evolution of alternaviruses. Our results provided evidence for potential genera establishment within the proposed family "Alternaviridae". Additionally, FoAV1 exhibited biological control of Fusarium wilt.
  • 843
  • 23 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus
Severe Acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV or SARS-CoV-1) is a strain of virus that causes severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). It is an enveloped, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA virus which infects the epithelial cells within the lungs. The virus enters the host cell by binding to angiotensin-converting enzyme 2. It infects humans, bats, and palm civets. On 16 April 2003, following the outbreak of SARS in Asia and secondary cases elsewhere in the world, the World Health Organization (WHO) issued a press release stating that the coronavirus identified by a number of laboratories was the official cause of SARS. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in the United States and National Microbiology Laboratory (NML) in Canada identified the SARS-CoV-1 genome in April 2003. Scientists at Erasmus University in Rotterdam, the Netherlands, demonstrated that the SARS coronavirus fulfilled Koch's postulates, thereby confirming it as the causative agent. In the experiments, macaques infected with the virus developed the same symptoms as human SARS victims. A similar virus was discovered in December 2019. This virus, named severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), is the causative pathogen of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.
  • 842
  • 18 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Evolution of H5Nx Subtypes
With the extensive divergence of the H5 hemagglutinin (HA) sequences of documented viruses, the WHO/FAO/OIE H5 Evolutionary Working Group clustered these viruses into a systematic and unified nomenclature of clade 2.3.4.4 currently known as “H5Nx” viruses. The rapid emergence and circulation of these viruses, namely, H5N2, H5N3, H5N5, H5N6, H5N8, and the regenerated H5N1, are of great concern based on their pandemic potential. 
  • 841
  • 27 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Changes in Subcellular Localization
Viruses are dependent on host factors at all parts of the infection cycle, such as translation, genome replication, encapsidation, and cell-to-cell and systemic movement. RNA viruses replicate their genome in compartments associated with the endoplasmic reticulum, chloroplasts, and mitochondria or peroxisome membranes. In contrast, DNA viruses replicate in the nucleus. Viral infection causes changes in plant gene expression and in the subcellular localization of some host proteins. These changes may support or inhibit virus accumulation and spread. Here, we review host proteins that change their subcellular localization in the presence of a plant virus. The most frequent change is the movement of host cytoplasmic proteins into the sites of virus replication through interactions with viral proteins, and the protein contributes to essential viral processes. In contrast, only a small number of studies document changes in the subcellular localization of proteins with antiviral activity. Understanding the changes in the subcellular localization of host proteins during plant virus infection provides novel insights into the mechanisms of plant–virus interactions and may help the identification of targets for designing genetic resistance to plant viruses.
  • 838
  • 22 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Viral Vectors
Viral vectors can generate high levels of recombinant protein expression providing the basis for modern vaccine development. A large number of different viral vector expression systems have been utilized for targeting viral surface proteins and tumor-associated antigens.
  • 837
  • 23 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Influenza A (H7N9) Human Adaptation
Avian influenza virus A (H7N9), after circulating in avian hosts for decades, was identified as a human pathogen in 2013. Herein, we focus on the quantification of the virus diversity and the identification of amino acid substitutions that are possibly essential for human adaptation.
  • 837
  • 14 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Diagnostic Utility and Vaccine Development of SARS-CoV-2 Antibodies
Antibodies (Abs) are important immune mediators and powerful diagnostic markers in a wide range of infectious diseases. Understanding the humoral immunity or the development of effective antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 is a prerequisite for limiting disease burden in the community and aids in the development of new diagnostic, therapeutic, and vaccination options. Antibody testing showed the potential in adding important diagnostic value to the routine diagnosis and clinical management of COVID-19. They could also play a critical role in COVID-19 surveillance, allowing for a better understanding of the full scope of the disease. The development of several vaccines and the success of passive immunotherapy suggest that anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies have the potential to be used in the treatment and prevention of SARS-CoV-2 infection.
  • 837
  • 21 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Clinical Management of Malaria and HIV Co-Infection
Malaria and HIV are geographically in the tropics and subtropics of the world, including sub-Saharan Africa. Understanding the overlapping effect of both infections, especially among pregnant women, is crucial in managing pregnant women during antenatal care visits, and postpartum babies. It was realized that the prevalence of malaria among HIV-positive pregnant women ranges between 31–61%, while for non-HIV infected pregnant women the prevalence still stands between 10 and 36%. Co-infection is between 0.52 and 56.3%.
  • 836
  • 23 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Antiviral Defence Mechanisms in Plants
Plant viruses, as obligate intracellular parasites, rely exclusively on host machinery to complete their life cycle. Whether a virus is pathogenic or not depends on the balance between the mechanisms used by both plants and viruses during the intense encounter. Antiviral defence mechanisms in plants can be of two types, i.e., natural resistance and engineered resistance. Innate immunity, RNA silencing, translational repression, autophagy-mediated degradation, and resistance to virus movement are the possible natural defence mechanisms against viruses in plants, whereas engineered resistance includes pathogen-derived resistance along with gene editing technologies.
  • 836
  • 04 May 2023
Topic Review
CRISPR/Cas Technique for Emerging Viral Disease
Viral diseases have emerged as a serious threat to humanity and as a leading cause of morbidity worldwide. Many viral diagnostic methods and antiviral therapies have been developed over time, but there is a long way from treating certain infections caused by viruses. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is one of the challenges where current medical science advancements fall short. As a result, new diagnostic and treatment options are desperately needed. The CRISPR/Cas9 system has been proposed as a potential therapeutic approach for viral disease treatment. CRISPR/Cas9 is a specialised, effective, and adaptive gene-editing technique that can be used to modify, delete, or correct specific DNA sequences. It has evolved into an advanced, configurable nuclease-based single or multiple gene-editing tool with a wide range of applications. It is widely preferred simply because its operational procedures are simple, inexpensive, and extremely efficient. Exploration of infectious virus genomes is required for a comprehensive study of infectious viruses. 
  • 834
  • 11 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Satellite Subgenomic Particles Key Regulators
Historically, adeno-associated virus (AAV)-defective interfering particles (DI) were known as abnormal virions arising from natural replication and encapsidation errors. In this study, from analyzing the genome configurations of DI particles, a major category of DI particles is revealed, which contains a double stranded DNA genome in a “snapback” configuration. Such molecules may enhance the capsid protein expression and modulate rep expression. The subgenomic particles play an important role in the life cycle wild type AAV.
  • 833
  • 05 Jul 2021
Topic Review
Effectiveness of COVID-19 Vaccines against Delta (B.1.617.2) Variant
The high transmissibility, mortality, and morbidity rate of the SARS-CoV-2 Delta (B.1.617.2) variant have raised concerns regarding vaccine effectiveness (VE). The short-term effectiveness of the Pfizer-BioNTech, Moderna, AstraZeneca, Bharat Biotech, and CoronaVac vaccines for the prevention of infection and the reduction in the severity of illness and hospitalizations associated with the Delta variant are supported. 
  • 833
  • 06 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Toscana virus NSs protein stability
The non-structural protein NSs of the Phenuiviridae family members appears to have a role in the host immunity escape. Toscana virus NSs protein exerts its inhibitory function by triggering RIG-I for proteasomal degradation, confirming the interaction between the ubiquitin system and TOSV NSs. The mass spectrometry analysis of TOSV NSs allowed the direct identification of lysine residues targeted for ubiquitination. Moreover, analysis of NSs K-mutants confirmed the presence and the important role of lysine residues located in the central and the C-terminal parts of the protein in controlling the NSs cellular level. Therefore, we directly demonstrated a new cellular pathway involved in controlling TOSV NSs fate and activity, and this opens the way to new investigations among more pathogenic viruses of the Phenuiviridae family.
  • 831
  • 15 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Influenza Treatment: Advantages of Drug Combination Therapy
Influenza infection is serious and debilitating for humans and animals. The influenza virus undergoes incessant mutation, segment recombination, and genome reassortment. Antiviral therapy has been used for the treatment of influenza since the development of amantadine in the 1960s; however, its use is hampered by the emergence of novel strains and the development of drug resistance. Thus, combinational therapy with two or more antivirals or immunomodulators with different modes of action is the optimal strategy for the effective treatment of influenza infection. 
  • 828
  • 02 Mar 2023
Topic Review
Oncolytic Viruses and ICI
Immuno-oncology (IO) has been an active area of oncology research. Following US FDA approval of the first immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI), ipilimumab (human IgG1 k anti-CTLA-4 monoclonal antibody), in 2011, and of the first oncolytic virus, Imlygic (talimogene laherparepvec), in 2015, there has been renewed interest in IO. In the past decade, ICIs have changed the treatment paradigm for many cancers by enabling better therapeutic control, resuming immune surveillance, suppressing tumor immunosuppression, and restoring antitumor immune function. However, ICI therapies are effective only in a small subset of patients and show limited therapeutic potential due to their inability to demonstrate efficacy in "cold" or unresponsive tumor microenvironments (TMEs). Relatedly, oncolytic viruses (OVs) have been shown to induce antitumor immune responses, augment the efficacy of existing cancer treatments, and reform unresponsive TME to turn "cold" tumors "hot," increasing their susceptibility to checkpoint blockade immunotherapies. For this reason, OVs serve as ideal complements to ICIs, and multiple preclinical studies and clinical trials are demonstrating their combined therapeutic efficacy. 
  • 825
  • 26 Dec 2020
Topic Review
Novel Heterocyclic Derivatives against SARS-CoV-2
The heterocyclic ring derivatives were evaluated for their therapeutic potentials against SARS-CoV-2 Mpro, Spro, and RdRp. All the compounds reported showed excellent binding affinities with the various target proteins. Among the derivatives, compound C13 exhibits the highest binding affinity for the drug targets Spro (−10.6 kcal/mol) and RdRp (−9.5 kcal/mol), respectively. At a binding affinity of −8.8kcal/mol, the compound C15 exhibits the highest binding affinity for Mpro. The compounds interacted with the LEU A:271, LEU A:287, ASP A:289, and LEU A:272 of Mpro and the HIS A:540, PRO A:415, PHE A:486, and LEU A:370 of the Spro receptor binding motif and some active site amino acids of RdRp. The compounds also possess a favourable ADMET profile and showed no tendency towards hERG inhibition, hepatotoxicity, carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, or drug-liver injury. 
  • 825
  • 17 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Nucleic Acid-Based Therapies in SARS-CoV-2
SARS-CoV-2 is a coronavirus family member that appeared in China in December 2019 and caused the disease called COVID-19, which was declared a pandemic in 2020 by the World Health Organization. Concerning nucleic acid-based therapy, RNA therapy has shown promising results in treating several human malignances, including viral diseases. There are different approaches to targeting RNA in the human body: small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), microRNAs (miRNAs), antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs), and CRISPR/Cas systems, among others. 
  • 824
  • 30 Sep 2022
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