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Topic Review
Pathophysiology of Cholangiopathies
Cholestasis is a condition characterized by decrease in bile flow due to progressive pathological states that lead to chronic cholestatic liver diseases which affect the biliary tree at the intrahepatic and extrahepatic level. Cholestasis can pose risks to overall health, as the reduced flow of bile can hinder the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins and nutrients, leading to deficiencies. Additionally, it can induce other complications other such as cirrhosis, liver failure, malignancies and bone disease. Early diagnosis and adequate management are crucial in treating cholestasis in order to alleviate symptoms, prevent complications and address the underlying cause.
  • 916
  • 20 Jun 2023
Topic Review
Bisphenol A (BPA)
Bisfenol A (2,2-bis-(p-hydroxyphenyl)-2-propane, BPA) is an organic chemical compound that belongs to the group of phenols. It is widely used in the production of plastics, including polycarbonates and epoxy resins.
  • 915
  • 03 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Epigenetics in Inflammatory Bowel Disease
Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) are chronic inflammatory disorders of the gastrointestinal tract that encompass two main phenotypes, namely Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis. These conditions occur in genetically predisposed individuals in response to environmental factors. Epigenetics, acting by DNA methylation, post-translational histones modifications or by non-coding RNAs, could explain how the exposome (or all environmental influences over the life course, from conception to death) could influence the gene expression to contribute to intestinal inflammation.
  • 914
  • 25 Jul 2022
Topic Review
TLR4 Signaling in Hepatocellular Carcinoma Immunotherapy
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common type of primary liver cancer and is a leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide. Immunotherapy has emerged as the mainstay treatment option for unresectable HCC. Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) plays a crucial role in the innate immune response by recognizing and responding primarily to bacterial lipopolysaccharides. In addition to its role in the innate immune system, TLR4 has also been implicated in adaptive immunity, including specific anti-tumor immune responses. In particular, the TLR4 signaling pathway seems to be involved in the regulation of several cancer hallmarks, such as the continuous activation of cellular pathways that promote cell division and growth, the inhibition of programmed cell death, the promotion of several invasion and metastatic mechanisms, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, angiogenesis, drug resistance, and epigenetic modifications. Emerging evidence further suggests that TLR4 signaling holds promise as a potential immunotherapeutic target in HCC
  • 913
  • 21 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Role of Interleukins in Hepatitis B Virus Infection
Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is a worldwide medical issue with significant morbidity and mortality, as it is the main cause of chronic liver disease and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Both innate and adaptive immune responses play a key role in HBV replication and suppression. The pathophysiological function of interleukins (IL) in the natural course of HBV has gained much attention as a result of the broad use of anti-interleukin agents for a variety of autoimmune diseases and the accompanying risk of HBV reactivation.
  • 913
  • 05 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Extra-Intestinal Manifestations of Celiac Disease
Celiac disease (CD) is a chronic, small-intestinal, immune-mediated enteropathy due to gluten exposition in genetically predisposed individuals. It occurs in about 1% of the population and often remains an underdiagnosed condition. This could be due to the fact that the adult population often lacks the classical signs and symptoms of CD, manifesting only atypical symptoms.
  • 912
  • 26 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease and Cardiovascular Disease
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a metabolic liver disease, which classically includes a spectrum of progressive pathological conditions, ranging from simple steatosis to non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) with different grades of fibrosis and cirrhosis. NAFLD is also a “multisystemic” disease, NAFLD is independently associated with serious hepatic complications (e.g., hepatic decompensation, hepatocellular carcinoma [HCC]), but also with an increased risk of developing cardiovascular disease (CVD).
  • 912
  • 17 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Therapeutic Options of Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli Infections
Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) are the human pathogenic subset of Shiga toxin (Stx)-producing E. coli (STEC). EHEC are responsible for severe colon infections associated with life-threatening extraintestinal complications such as the hemolytic-uremic syndrome (HUS) and neurological disturbances. Endothelial cells in various human organs are renowned targets of Stx, whereas the role of epithelial cells of colon and kidneys in the infection process has been and is still a matter of debate.
  • 912
  • 15 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Chitosan-Based Nanomaterials and its Applications
The small intestine provides the major site for the absorption of numerous orally administered drugs. However, before reaching to the systemic circulation to exert beneficial pharmacological activities, the oral drug delivery is hindered by poor absorption/metabolic instability of the drugs in gastrointestinal (GI) tract and the presence of the mucus layer overlying intestinal epithelium. Therefore, a polymeric drug delivery system has emerged as a robust approach to enhance oral drug bioavailability and intestinal drug absorption. Chitosan, a cationic polymer derived from chitin, and its derivatives have received remarkable attention to serve as a promising drug carrier, chiefly owing to their versatile, biocompatible, biodegradable, and non-toxic properties. Several types of chitosan-based drug delivery systems have been developed, including chemical modification, conjugates, capsules, and hybrids. They have been shown to be effective in improving intestinal assimilation of several types of drugs, e.g., antidiabetic, anticancer, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory drugs. In this review, the physiological challenges affecting intestinal drug absorption and the effects of chitosan on those parameters impacting on oral bioavailability are summarized. More appreciably, types of chitosan-based nanomaterials enhancing intestinal drug absorption and their mechanisms, as well as potential applications in diabetes, cancers, infections, and inflammation, are highlighted. The future perspective of chitosan applications is also discussed. 
  • 910
  • 13 Jul 2021
Topic Review
Interactions between Nanoparticles and Intestine
The use of nanoparticles (NPs) has surely grown in recent years due to their versatility, with a spectrum of applications that range from nanomedicine to the food industry. Recent research focuses on the development of NPs for the oral administration route rather than the intravenous one, placing the interactions between NPs and the intestine at the centre of the attention. This allows the NPs functionalization to exploit the different characteristics of the digestive tract, such as the different pH, the intestinal mucus layer, or the intestinal absorption capacity. On the other hand, these same characteristics can represent a problem for their complexity, also considering the potential interactions with the food matrix or the microbiota.
  • 908
  • 06 May 2022
Topic Review
Features of Lipid Metabolism Disorders in PBC
Primary biliary cholangitis (PBC), previously known as primary biliary cirrhosis, is an autoimmune liver disease that mostly affects women. A progressive disorder in the processes of bile secretion and enterohepatic bile salts circulation in patients with PBC already in its early stages, leading to an insufficient release of bile acids into the bowel and their entry into the systemic circulation. Insufficient bile acids released into the duodenum contributes to the development of malabsorption, energy malnutrition, and slowly progressive weight loss.
  • 906
  • 08 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Impact of Sex Hormones on Hepatocellular Carcinoma
Several chronic liver diseases are characterized by a clear gender disparity. Among them, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) shows significantly higher incidence rates in men than in women. The different epidemiological distribution of risk factors for liver disease and HCC only partially accounts for these gender differences. In fact, the liver is an organ with recognized sexual dysmorphism and is extremely sensitive to the action of androgens and estrogens. Sex hormones act by modulating the risk of developing HCC and influencing its aggressiveness, response to treatments, and prognosis. Furthermore, androgens and estrogens are able to modulate the action of other factors and cofactors of liver damage (e.g., chronic HBV infection, obesity), significantly influencing their carcinogenic power.
  • 900
  • 21 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Intestinal Tryptophan Metabolism in Inflammatory Bowel Disease
Evidence is emerging for the role of intestinal tryptophan metabolism in the development of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). In order to identify the role of altered intestinal tryptophan metabolism in IBD pathogenesis, a meta-analysis of the transcriptome was performed to identify differentially expressed genes involved in the tryptophan metabolism pathways in intestinal biopsies of IBD as compared to non-IBD controls.
  • 899
  • 18 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Liver Fibrosis Regression
Hepatic fibrosis is a scar formation process consisting in altered deposition of extracellular matrix. Progression of fibrosis can lead to impaired liver architecture and function, resulting in cirrhosis and organ failure. In the liver, due to its high regenerative ability, the extent of fibrosis regression and reversion to normal architecture is higher than in other tissues, even in advanced disease. 
  • 898
  • 24 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Skeletal Muscles in Obesity
Skeletal muscles, as well as adipose tissue, are largely recognized as endocrine organs, producing biologically active substances, such as myokines and adipokines. They may have either beneficial or harmful effects on the organism and its functions, acting through the endocrine, paracrine, and autocrine pathways. Moreover, the collocation of adipose tissue and skeletal muscles, i.e., the amount of intramuscular, intermuscular, and visceral adipose depots, may be of major importance for metabolic health. Traditionally, the generalized and progressive loss of skeletal muscle mass and strength or physical function, named sarcopenia, has been thought to be associated with age.
  • 897
  • 05 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Fecal Microbiota Transplantation in the Management of Cancer
In a mutually beneficial connection with its host, the gut microbiota affects the host’s nutrition, immunity, and metabolism. An increasing number of studies have shown links between certain types of disease and gut dysbiosis or specific microorganisms. Fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) is strongly advised for the treatment of recurrent or resistant Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) due to its outstanding clinical effectiveness against CDI. The therapeutic potential of FMT for other disorders, particularly inflammatory bowel diseases and malignancies, is currently gaining more and more attention. 
  • 895
  • 30 May 2023
Topic Review
Advanced Gastroesophageal Cancer
Advanced gastroesophageal cancer (GEC) has a poor prognosis and limited treatment options. Immunotherapy including the anti-programmed death-1 (PD-1) antibodies pembrolizumab and nivolumab have been approved for use in various treatment settings in GEC. 
  • 892
  • 27 Apr 2021
Topic Review
PD-L1 Expression as a Biomarker in Gastric Cancer
Despite advances in diagnostic imaging, surgical techniques, and systemic therapy, gastric cancer (GC) is the third leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide. Unfortunately, molecular heterogeneity and, consequently, acquired resistance in GC are the major causes of failure in the development of biomarker-guided targeted therapies. However, by showing promising survival benefits in some studies, the recent emergence of immunotherapy in GC has had a significant impact on treatment-selectable procedures. Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), widely indicated in the treatment of several malignancies, target inhibitory receptors on T lymphocytes, including the programmed cell death protein (PD-1)/programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) axis and cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4 (CTLA4), and release effector T-cells from negative feedback signals. 
  • 892
  • 26 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Therapeutic Approaches for Gastric Neuroendocrine Neoplasms
Gastric neuroendocrine neoplasms (gNENs) represent rare but increasingly recognized tumors. They are distinguished into three main clinical types (type-1, type-2, and type-3) according to gastrin level and at histological evaluation in well-differentiated G1, G2, or G3 lesions, as well as poorly-differentiated lesions.
  • 892
  • 13 Oct 2023
Topic Review
Surgical Strategies for Recurrent Hepatocellular Carcinoma after Resection
Among primary liver cancers, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common. Surgical resection and liver transplantation both represent potentially curative treatments not only in the case of the first occurrence, but also in those cases of disease recurrence if a proper selection of patients is performed ahead. Incidentally, the type and the time of relapse carry important weight on patient prognosis and overall survival. For these cases, proper management has still not been exactly defined.
  • 891
  • 11 Feb 2023
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