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Topic Review
Role of Lithium in SARS-CoV-2
Lithium possesses the ability to depolarize the resting membrane potential of the cell. It has been proposed that lithium treats bipolar patients by membrane depo-larization of neuronal cells that is triggered by quantum tunneling of lithium ions through sodium channels when lithium reaches its therapeutic concentration.
  • 961
  • 12 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Prime-Boost COVID-19 Vaccination against SARS-CoV-2
The types of these vaccines include two recombinant adenovirus vaccines (ChAdOx1-S and Ad26.COV2-S), one heterologous recombinant adenovirus vaccine (Gam-COVID-Vac), two mRNA vaccines (BNT162b2 and mRNA-1273), two inactivated virus vaccines (BBIBP-CorV and CoronaVac), and one recombinant protein vaccine (NVX-CoV2373).
  • 960
  • 07 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Ranaviral and Frog Virus 3
Ranaviruses (Iridoviridae), including Frog Virus 3 (FV3), are large dsDNA viruses that cause devastating infections globally in amphibians, fish, and reptiles, and contribute to catastrophic amphibian declines. Our findings imply that Ranaviruses like FV3 have acquired previously unknown molecular mimics, interfering with host IFN signaling during evolution.
  • 959
  • 11 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Universal Influenza Vaccine Human Trials
On average, there are 3–5 million severe cases of influenza virus infections globally each year. Seasonal influenza vaccines provide limited protection against divergent influenza strains. Therefore, the development of a universal influenza vaccine is a top priority for the NIH. Here, we report a comprehensive summary of all universal influenza vaccines that were tested in clinical trials during the 2010–2019 decade. Of the 1597 studies found, 69 eligible clinical trials, which investigated 27 vaccines, were included in this review. Information from each trial was compiled for vaccine target, vaccine platform, adjuvant inclusion, clinical trial phase, and results. As we look forward, there are currently three vaccines in phase III clinical trials which could provide significant improvement over seasonal influenza vaccines. This systematic review of universal influenza vaccine clinical trials during the 2010–2019 decade provides an update on the progress towards an improved influenza vaccine.
  • 958
  • 12 May 2021
Topic Review
Placenta in SARS-CoV-2 Infection
A pandemic of acute respiratory infections, due to a new type of coronavirus, can cause Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and has created the need for a better understanding of the clinical, epidemiological, and pathological features of COVID-19, especially in high-risk groups, such as pregnant women. Viral infections in pregnant women may have a much more severe course, and result in an increase in the rate of complications, including spontaneous abortion, stillbirth, and premature birth—which may cause long-term consequences in the offspring. In this review, we focus on the mother-fetal-placenta interface and its role in the potential transmission of SARS-CoV-2, including expression of viral receptors and proteases, placental pathology, and the presence of the virus in neonatal tissues and fluids. 
  • 958
  • 15 Jun 2021
Topic Review
SARS-CoV-2 Dysregulates Neutrophil Degranulation and Reduces Lymphocyte Counts
SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, has given rise to one of the largest pandemics, affecting millions worldwide. High neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratios have been identified as an important correlate to poor recovery rates in severe COVID-19 patients. However, the mechanisms underlying this clinical outcome and the reasons for its correlation to poor prognosis are unclear. Furthermore, the mechanisms involved in healthy neutrophils acquiring a SARS-CoV-2-mediated detrimental role are yet to be fully understood. 
  • 954
  • 14 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Mosquito-Associated Viruses in West Africa
A cumulative number of MAVs are being discovered in hematophagous arthropods all over the world. There is a potential impact on the fitness and competence of the vector. Therefore, more research is needed to expand the knowledge about their prevalence, distribution, and diversity. The trend of MAVs reported in the literature enlightens how researches about MAVs are on the increase. The past decades have shown a dramatic surge in the literature recounting novel MSVs and classical arboviruses. The increase in research interest has provided new understanding about viral diversity and evolution. Finally, the new viruses discovered have created curiosity in their use as potential biological control agents. 
  • 953
  • 11 Jun 2021
Topic Review
HTLV-1 Infection and Pathogenesis
Since the discovery of the human T-cell leukemia virus-1 (HTLV-1), cellular and animal models have provided invaluable contributions in the knowledge of viral infection, transmission and progression of HTLV-associated diseases. HTLV-1 is the causative agent of the aggressive adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma and inflammatory diseases such as the HTLV-1 associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP). In this entry, authors recapitulate the most effective animal models applied to investigate the pathogenesis of HTLV-1-associated diseases such as transgenic and humanized mice, rabbit and monkey models. 
  • 952
  • 22 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Bird-Related Rhabdoviruses Circulating in Africa
Rhabdoviridae is the most diverse family of the negative, single-stranded RNA viruses, which includes 40 ecologically different genera that infect plants, insects, reptiles, fishes, and mammals, including humans, and birds. To date, only a few bird-related rhabdoviruses among the genera Sunrhavirus, Hapavirus, and Tupavirus have been described and analyzed at the molecular level.
  • 952
  • 16 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Multi-Organ Histopathological Changes
Infection with SARS-CoV-2, the virus responsible for the global COVID-19 pandemic, causes a respiratory illness that can severely impact other organ systems and is possibly precipitated by cytokine storm, septic shock, thrombosis, and oxidative stress. SARS-CoV-2 infected individuals may be asymptomatic or may experience mild, moderate, or severe symptoms with or without pneumonia.
  • 951
  • 13 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Negative Strand RNA Viruses
A number of medically-relevant zoonotic pathogens are negative-strand RNA viruses (NSVs). NSVs are derived from different virus families. Examples like Ebola are known for causing severe symptoms and high mortality rates. Some, like influenza, are known for their ease of person-to-person transmission and lack of pre-existing immunity, enabling rapid spread across many countries around the globe. 
  • 950
  • 07 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Gut Microbiome and Adjuvant Treatment of COVID-19
High expression of the transmembrane protein angiotensin I converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), more than 100-times higher as in the lung, and transmembrane serine protease 2 (TMPRSS2) in the gastrointestinal tract leads to infection with SARS-CoV-2. According to meta-analysis data, 9.8–20% of COVID-19 patients experience gastrointestinal symptoms, where diarrhoea is the most frequent, and about 50% shed viruses with high titre through their faeces, where a first faecal transmission was reported. Furthermore, gut inflammation, intestinal damage, and weakening of the gut mucosal integrity that leads to increased permeability has been shown in different studies for COVID-19 patients. This can lead to increased inflammation and bacteraemia. Low mucosal integrity combined with low intestinal damage is a good predictor for disease progression and submission to the intensive care unit (ICU). Several pilot studies have shown that the gut microbiome of COVID-19 patients is changed, microbial richness and diversity were lower, and opportunistic pathogens that can cause bacteraemia were enriched compared to a healthy control group. In a large proportion of these patients, dysbiosis was not resolved at discharge from the hospital and one study showed dysbiosis is still present after 3 months post COVID-19. Consequently, there might be a link between dysbiosis of the gut microbiome in COVID-19 patients and chronic COVID-19 syndrome (CCS). Various clinical trials are investigating the benefit of probiotics for acute COVID-19 patients, the majority of which have not reported results yet. However, two clinical trials have shown that a certain combination of probiotics is beneficial and safe for acute COVID-19 patients. Mortality was 11% for the probiotic treatment group, and 22% for the control group. Furthermore, for the probiotic group, symptoms cleared faster, and an 8-fold decreased risk of developing a respiratory failure was calculated. In conclusion, evidence is arising that inflammation, increased permeability, and microbiome dysbiosis in the gut occur in COVID-19 patients and thus provide new targets for adjuvant treatments of acute and chronic COVID-19. More research in this area is needed.
  • 949
  • 23 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Gamma-Delta T Cells
Recent advances in γδ T cell biology have focused on the unique attributes of these cells and their role in regulating innate and adaptive immunity, promoting tissue homeostasis, and providing resistance to various disorders. Numerous bacterial and viral pathogens, including human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV), greatly alter the composition of γδ T cells in vivo. Despite the effectiveness of antiretroviral therapy (ART) in controlling HIV and restoring health in those affected, γδ T cells are dramatically impacted during HIV infection and fail to reconstitute to normal levels in HIV-infected individuals during ART for reasons that are not clearly understood. Importantly, their role in controlling HIV infection, and the implications of their failure to rebound during ART are also largely unknown and understudied.
  • 948
  • 13 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Extracellular Vesicles for COVID-19
COVID-19 is an infectious disease caused by the novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) that first appeared in late 2019 and has since spread across the world. It is characterized by symptoms such as fever, cough, and shortness of breath and can lead to death in severe cases. To help contain the virus, measures such as social distancing, handwashing, and other public health measures have been implemented. Vaccine and drug candidates, such as those developed by Pfizer/BioNTech, AstraZeneca, Moderna, Novavax, and Johnson & Johnson, have been developed and are being distributed worldwide. Clinical trials for drug treatments such as remdesivir, dexamethasone, and monoclonal antibodies are underway and have shown promising results. 
  • 946
  • 11 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Ecology of Powassan Virus in the United States
The Powassan virus (POWV) is a rare tick-borne virus that can cause severe neurological damage and death, and the incidence of the associated disease (Powassan virus disease) is increasing in the eastern United States. The mechanisms by which POWV is maintained in nature and transmitted to humans are complex and only partly understood. 
  • 945
  • 30 Nov 2021
Topic Review
A Mycobacteriophage-Based Vaccine Platform for SARS-CoV-2
Bacteriophage-based vaccines can generate a protective immune response by safely introducing foreign antigens displayed on, encapsidated within, or genetically encoded by phage. Here authors describe recombinants of mycobacteriophage Bxb1 (a phage infecting Mycobacterium smegmatis) that covalently display and express antigenic peptides of the SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein. Several of these vaccine candidates produced Spike-specific antibodies in immunized mice, but the responses were not neutralizing. This mycobacteriophage-based vaccine platform can likely be improved if delivery of larger antigens is achieved. 
  • 944
  • 06 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Treatment of Chronic Hepatitis B
Chronic carriers of hepatitis B virus (HBV) run the risk of developing cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma over time. Antiviral treatment offers the only means of arresting this process. Treatment relies on the use of an immune modulator such as pegylated interferon alpha (Peg-IFN-a) for a finite time or nucleosi(t)ide analogues which target the reverse transcriptase/DNA polymerase and can be used long-term. Drugs in development which target stages in the life cycle of the virus are reviewed, as are any results from their preclinical or clinical evaluation.
  • 939
  • 01 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Nanomedicine as a Potential Tool against Monkeypox
Human monkeypox is a rare viral zoonosis that was first identified in 1970; since then, this infectious disease has been marked as endemic in central and western Africa. Questions about the necessity of developing a vaccine persist. Developing a nanomedicine-based preventative strategy might be prudent, particularly with the rapid growth of the use of nanotechnology and nanomaterials in medical research.
  • 939
  • 10 Mar 2023
Topic Review
Immunopathogenesis of Nipah Virus Infection
Nipah virus is a negative-sense single-stranded ribonucleic acid ((−)ssRNA) virus within the family Paramyxoviridae. Nipah virus infection occurs predominantly in isolated regions of Malaysia, Bangladesh, and India in small outbreaks. Factors that affect animal–human disease transmission include viral mutation, direct contact, amplifying reservoirs, food, close contact, and host cell mutations. There are different strains of Nipah virus, and small outbreaks in humans limit known research and surveillance on this pathogen. 
  • 939
  • 06 May 2023
Topic Review
Molecular Biology of Hepatitis B Virus
Chronic infection with the hepatitis B virus (HBV) affects an estimated 257 million people worldwide and can lead to liver diseases such as cirrhosis and liver cancer. Viral replication is generally considered not to be cytopathic. Nevertheless, some HBV proteins have direct carcinogenic effects, and chronic inflammation resulting from disrupted antiviral responses and aberrant innate immune reactions lead to HBV infection-related disease and mortality in up to 25% of cases. HBV is an enveloped virus. The enveloped core particle contains the viral polymerase and the partially double stranded HBV DNA genome. The DNA is generated from an RNA template and thus the virus should be classified as a retrovirus. The virus has one accessory protein, the X protein (HBx), which is the main viral oncogene. HBx expression is essential to initiate and maintain viral RNA transcription. 
  • 936
  • 06 Jan 2023
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