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Topic Review
Various Adeno-Associated Viruses Serotypes in Gene Therapy
Depending on their serotype, adeno-associated viruses (AAVs) can have specific tropism for specific organs and tissues of the body. There are different AAV serotypes that vary in many aspects. A variety of AAV features have made it an appealing viral vector candidate to be used in gene therapy applications. 
  • 1.0K
  • 06 May 2023
Topic Review
HTLV-1 Infection and Pathogenesis
Since the discovery of the human T-cell leukemia virus-1 (HTLV-1), cellular and animal models have provided invaluable contributions in the knowledge of viral infection, transmission and progression of HTLV-associated diseases. HTLV-1 is the causative agent of the aggressive adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma and inflammatory diseases such as the HTLV-1 associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP). In this entry, authors recapitulate the most effective animal models applied to investigate the pathogenesis of HTLV-1-associated diseases such as transgenic and humanized mice, rabbit and monkey models. 
  • 1.0K
  • 22 Sep 2021
Topic Review
NSPs Present in the SARS-CoV-2 Genome
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is an enveloped respiratory β coronavirus that causes coronavirus disease (COVID-19), leading to a deadly pandemic that has claimed millions of lives worldwide. Like other coronaviruses, the SARS-CoV-2 genome also codes for non-structural proteins (NSPs). These NSPs are found within open reading frame 1a (ORF1a) and open reading frame 1ab (ORF1ab) of the SARS-CoV-2 genome and encode NSP1 to NSP11 and NSP12 to NSP16, respectively. 
  • 1.0K
  • 23 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Protein–DNA Interactions in Human Papillomavirus
Human papillomavirus (HPV) is a group of alpha papillomaviruses that cause various illnesses, including cancer. There are more than 160 types of HPV, with many being “high-risk” types that have been clinically linked to cervical and other types of cancer. “Low-risk” types of HPV cause less severe conditions, such as genital warts. Numerous studies have shed light on how HPV induces carcinogenesis. The HPV genome is a circular double-stranded DNA molecule that is approximately 8 kilobases in size. Replication of this genome is strictly regulated and requires two virus-encoded proteins, E1 and E2. E1 is a DNA helicase that is necessary for replisome assembly and replication of the HPV genome. On the other hand, E2 is responsible for initiating DNA replication and regulating the transcription of HPV-encoded genes, most importantly the E6 and E7 oncogenes.
  • 1.0K
  • 29 May 2023
Topic Review
Vaccine against CSFV
Classical swine fever (CSF), caused by CSF virus (CSFV), is one of the most devastating viral epizootic diseases of swine in many countries. To control the disease, highly efficacious and safe live attenuated vaccines have been used for decades. However, the main drawback of these conventional vaccines is the lack of differentiability of infected from vaccinated animals (DIVA concept). Advances in biotechnology and our detailed knowledge of multiple basic science disciplines have facilitated the development of effective and safer DIVA vaccines to control CSF. 
  • 1.0K
  • 26 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Virus Infection and Systemic Inflammation: COVID-19 and Beyond
Respiratory infections with newly emerging zoonotic viruses such as SARS-CoV-2, the etiological agent of COVID-19, often lead to the perturbation of the human innate and adaptive immune responses causing severe disease with high mortality. The responsible mechanisms are commonly virus-specific and often include either over-activated or delayed local interferon responses, which facilitate efficient viral replication in the primary target organ, systemic viral spread, and rapid onset of organ-specific and harmful inflammatory responses. Despite the distinct replication strategies, human infections with SARS-CoV-2 and highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses demonstrate remarkable similarities and differences regarding the mechanisms of immune induction, disease dynamics, as well as the long-term sequelae.
  • 1.0K
  • 05 Aug 2022
Topic Review
KSHV
Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), or human herpesvirus-8 (HHV-8), is an oncogenic γ-herpesvirus which is the etiological agent of the most prevalent AIDS-related malignancy, Kaposi’s sarcoma (KS). KSHV is also the causative agent of two lymphoproliferative disorders, the rare Multicentric Castleman disease (MCD) and primary effusion lymphoma (PEL). KSHV inflammatory cytokine syndrome (KICS) can also be attributed to KSHV infection.
  • 1.0K
  • 26 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Humanized Mouse Model for Human Immunodeficiency Virus Research
The human hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) gave rise to a lymphoid system of human origin. The HIV research community has greatly benefitted from these hu mice. Since human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) type 1 infection results in a high-titer disseminated HIV infection, hu mice have been of great value for all types of HIV research from pathogenesis to novel therapies. 
  • 1.0K
  • 06 May 2023
Topic Review
Adeno-Associated Viruses
Adeno-associated viruses (AAVs) are a convenient tool for gene therapy delivery. According to the current classification, they are divided into the species AAV A and AAV B within the genus Dependoparvovirus. Historically AAVs were also subdivided on the intraspecies level into 13 serotypes, which differ in tissue tropism and targeted gene delivery capacity. Serotype, however, is not a universal taxonomic category, and their assignment is not always robust. Cross-reactivity has been shown, indicating that classification could not rely on the results of serological tests alone. Moreover, since the isolation of AAV4, all subsequent AAVs were subdivided into serotypes based primarily on genetic differences and phylogenetic reconstructions.
  • 1.0K
  • 23 May 2022
Topic Review
Virion Structure of SARS-CoV-2 and Viral Inflammation
COVID-19 is an epidemic infection created by SARS-CoV-2 (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2). SARS-CoV-2 has a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA genome with 29,891 nucleotides and 38% G + C content, encoding 9860 amino acids. Human coronaviral inflammation induces the clinical symptoms of fever, cough, and shortness of breath.
  • 1.0K
  • 25 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Negative Strand RNA Viruses
A number of medically-relevant zoonotic pathogens are negative-strand RNA viruses (NSVs). NSVs are derived from different virus families. Examples like Ebola are known for causing severe symptoms and high mortality rates. Some, like influenza, are known for their ease of person-to-person transmission and lack of pre-existing immunity, enabling rapid spread across many countries around the globe. 
  • 1.0K
  • 07 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Entrectinib—An Inhibitor of SARS-CoV-2 Cell Entry
This entry describes entrectinib as an antiviral drug.
  • 1.0K
  • 20 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Viral Transmissibility of SARS-CoV-2
The emergence of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by the novel coronavirus severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has led to a global health calamity unprecedented in the modern world. The disease spread worldwide, and to date, there have been over 230 million confirmed cases of COVID-19, including approximately 4.7 million deaths. Mutant variants of the virus have raised concerns about additional pandemic waves and threaten to reverse our progress thus far to limit the spread of the virus. 
  • 1.0K
  • 27 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Epstein–Barr Virus Lytic Oncogenesis
Epstein–Barr Virus (EBV) contributes to the development of lymphoid and epithelial malignancies. While EBV’s latent phase is more commonly associated with EBV-associated malignancies, there is increasing evidence that EBV’s lytic phase plays a role in EBV-mediated oncogenesis. The lytic phase contributes to oncogenesis primarily in two ways: (1) the production of infectious particles to infect more cells, and (2) the regulation of cellular oncogenic pathways, both cell autonomously and non-cell autonomously.
  • 1.0K
  • 14 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Gut Virome in Childhood Diseases
Mammals are colonized by numerous microbes, collectively referred to as the microbiota. The microbiota forms a stable symbiotic relationship with the host and is indispensable for health maintenance. Although the eubacteria are the best characterized component of the human gut microbiota, it also includes commensal populations of viruses, fungi, multicellular parasites and archaea. Evidence highlights that the virome, consisting in DNA and RNA eukaryotic viruses, bacterial viruses (i.e., bacteriophages) and archaeal viruses, exerts a fundamental role in the host wellbeing. Indeed, alterations of the adult virome have been linked to increased disease susceptibility, suggesting that maintaining or restoring a structurally and functionally correct composition of the virome might represent in the near future a promising approach to prevent or cure different human diseases. Although the knowledge of childhood virome is currently very limited, modifications of the virome composition have been associated with several diseases during the pediatric age, such as inflammatory bowel disease, type 1 diabetes, malnutrition, diarrhea and celiac disease. 
  • 1.0K
  • 14 May 2021
Topic Review
Immunological Aspect of COVID-19 Disease
Understanding the host immune response against SARS-CoV-2 in COVID-19 patients can shed light on the immunopathogenesis of this disease and can help understand the molecular pathways for providing any medical intervention, which may provide long-term immunity by having circulated immune memory cells in the immune system and may enable the designing of prophylactic and therapeutic measures to overcome future pandemics such as coronaviruses.
  • 1.0K
  • 01 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Epstein–Barr Virus
Epstein–Barr virus is a ubiquitous persistent virus, which is involved in the development of some human cancers. A licensed vaccine to prevent Epstein–Barr virus infection is lacking. BamHI-A rightward frame 1 is a viral protein specifically detected in both nasopharyngeal and Epstein–Barr virus-positive gastric cancers. It has been proposed that this viral protein confers cancer properties to infected epithelial cells and is involved in the escape of cancer cells from immune recognition.
  • 1.0K
  • 22 Dec 2020
Topic Review
Extracellular Vesicles for COVID-19
COVID-19 is an infectious disease caused by the novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) that first appeared in late 2019 and has since spread across the world. It is characterized by symptoms such as fever, cough, and shortness of breath and can lead to death in severe cases. To help contain the virus, measures such as social distancing, handwashing, and other public health measures have been implemented. Vaccine and drug candidates, such as those developed by Pfizer/BioNTech, AstraZeneca, Moderna, Novavax, and Johnson & Johnson, have been developed and are being distributed worldwide. Clinical trials for drug treatments such as remdesivir, dexamethasone, and monoclonal antibodies are underway and have shown promising results. 
  • 1.0K
  • 11 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Immunopathogenesis of Nipah Virus Infection
Nipah virus is a negative-sense single-stranded ribonucleic acid ((−)ssRNA) virus within the family Paramyxoviridae. Nipah virus infection occurs predominantly in isolated regions of Malaysia, Bangladesh, and India in small outbreaks. Factors that affect animal–human disease transmission include viral mutation, direct contact, amplifying reservoirs, food, close contact, and host cell mutations. There are different strains of Nipah virus, and small outbreaks in humans limit known research and surveillance on this pathogen. 
  • 1.0K
  • 06 May 2023
Topic Review
Vaccination Attitudes
Vaccine hesitancy is a complex health problem, with various factors involved including the influence of an individual’s network. According to the Social Contagion Theory, attitudes and behaviours of an individual can be contagious to others in their social networks.
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  • 17 Jun 2021
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