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Topic Review
Diagnosis of Pulmonary Embolism during Pregnancy
Many of the symptoms and signs reported in almost 50% of women during physiological pregnancy, such as shortness of breath or lower limb oedema—especially as pregnancy advances through the third trimester—may suggest the possibility of a pulmonary embolism (PE) and/or deep vein thrombosis (DVT).
  • 1.2K
  • 29 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Functional Mitral Regurgitation and Tricuspid Regurgitation
Functional mitral regurgitation (FMR) and tricuspid regurgitation (FTR) occur due to cardiac remodeling in the presence of structurally normal valve apparatus. Two main mechanisms are involved, distinguishing an atrial functional form (when annulus dilatation is predominant) and a ventricular form (when ventricular remodeling and dysfunction predominate). Both affect the prognosis of patients with heart failure (HF) across the entire spectrum of left ventricle ejection fraction (LVEF), including preserved (HFpEF), mildly reduced (HFmrEF), or reduced (HFrEF).
  • 1.2K
  • 09 May 2023
Topic Review
Factors Affecting the Lipoprotein(a) Levels
Lipoprotein(a) is a variant of LDL-C, distinguished by the covalent binding of ApoB100 to a unique glycoprotein called apolipoprotein(a) via a disulfide thioester bond.
  • 1.2K
  • 01 Apr 2024
Topic Review
Electrocardiographic Changes in Myocardial Ischemia in COVID-19 Patients
Given the possible pathophysiological links between myocardial ischemia and SARS-CoV-2 infection, several studies have focused attention on acute coronary syndromes in order to improve patients’ morbidity and mortality. Understanding the pathophysiological aspects of myocardial ischemia in patients infected with SARS-CoV-2 can open a broad perspective on the proper management for each patient. The electrocardiogram (ECG) remains the easiest assessment of cardiac involvement in COVID-19 patients, due to its non-invasive profile, accessibility, low cost, and lack of radiation. The ECG changes provide insight into the patient’s prognosis, indicating either the worsening of an underlying cardiac illnesses or the acute direct injury by the virus. This indicates that the ECG is an important prognostic tool that can affect the outcome of COVID-19 patients, which important to correlate its aspects with the clinical characteristics and patient’s medical history. The ECG changes in myocardial ischemia include a broad spectrum in patients with COVID-19 with different cases reported of ST-segment elevation, ST-segment depression, and T wave inversion, which are associated with severe COVID-19 disease.
  • 1.2K
  • 15 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Autonomic Nervous System Role in Coumel’s Triangle
Arrhythmogenic substrate, modulating factors, and triggering factors (the so-called Coumel’s triangle concept) play a primary role in atrial fibrillation (AF) pathophysiology. Several years have elapsed since the concept of the relevance of autonomic nervous system (ANS) influences on atrial cells’ electrophysiological characteristics was advanced.
  • 1.2K
  • 25 May 2023
Topic Review
Epicardial Adipose Tissue
The epicardial adipose tissue (EAT) is a metabolically active organ recently associated with heart failure and atrial fibrillation and classified as an independent risk factor for subclinical coronary artery disease. Some evidence suggests as the assessment of EAT using coronary artery calcium (CAC) might represent an additional tool to quantify patients’ cardiovascular risk.
  • 1.2K
  • 28 Dec 2022
Topic Review
The Inflammatory Role of Medin in Vascular Disease
Medin, a small 50-amino acid peptide, is an internal cleaved product from the second discoidin domain of milk fat globule epidermal growth factor VIII (MFG-E8) protein. Medin has been reported as the most common amylogenic protein in the upper part of the arterial system, including aortic, temporal, and cerebral arterial walls in the elderly. Medin has a high affinity to elastic fibers and is closely associated with arterial degenerative inflammation, elastic fiber fragmentation, calcification, and amyloidosis. In vitro, treating with the medin peptide promotes the inflammatory phenotypic shift of both endothelial cells and vascular smooth muscle cells. In vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo studies demonstrate that medin enhances the abundance of reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen species produced by both endothelial cells and vascular smooth muscle cells and promotes vascular endothelial dysfunction and arterial stiffening. Immunostaining and immunoblotting analyses of human samples indicate that the levels of medin are increased in the pathogenesis of aortic aneurysm/dissection, temporal arteritis, and cerebrovascular dementia. Thus, medin peptide could be targeted as a biomarker diagnostic tool or as a potential molecular approach to curbing the arterial degenerative inflammatory remodeling that accompanies aging and disease.
  • 1.2K
  • 19 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Monoamine Oxidases
On the one hand, reactive oxygen species (ROS) are involved in the onset and progression of a wide array of diseases. On the other hand, these are a part of signaling pathways related to cell metabolism, growth and survival. While ROS are produced at various cellular sites, in cardiomyocytes the largest amount of ROS is generated by mitochondria. Apart from the electron transport chain and various other proteins, monoamine oxidases (MAO) has been proposed to modify mitochondrial ROS formation. 
  • 1.2K
  • 07 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Significance of microRNAs in Cardiovascular Diseases
The microRNAs (miRNAs), lncRNAs (long ncRNAs), and circRNAs (circular RNAs) with significant regulatory and structural roles make up approximately 99% of the human genome, which does not contain proteins. Non-coding RNAs (ncRNA) have been discovered to be essential novel regulators of cardiovascular risk factors and cellular processes, making them significant prospects for advanced diagnostics and prognosis evaluation. Cases of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are rising due to limitations in the existing therapeutic approach; most of the treatment options are based on the coding transcripts that encode proteins. Various investigations have shown the role of nc-RNA in the early diagnosis and treatment of CVDs. Furthermore, the development of novel diagnoses and treatments based on miRNAs, lncRNAs, and circRNAs could be more helpful in the clinical management of patients with CVDs. 
  • 1.2K
  • 21 Jun 2023
Topic Review
Fluorescent Immunoassays for Cardiac Troponin
Troponin is a complex of three proteins that regulate the contraction of skeletal and cardiac muscles. The measurement of cardiac troponin levels in patient's blood has become the “gold standard” indicator of myocardial infarction (MI) (“heart attack”). The measurements are conducted using an immunoassay that specifically and selectively detects troponin through antibody-protein binding and emits through a fluorescent output signal for quantification.
  • 1.2K
  • 20 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Coronary Microvascular Dysfunction
Coronary microvascular dysfunction (CMD) is defined as the clinical syndrome of angina, electrocardiographic ischemic changes in the absence of obstructive CAD. The pathophysiological basis is impaired microvascular vasodilatation, leading to inadequate increase in blood flow to match myocardial oxygen needs (previously referred to in the literature as “cardiac syndrome X”).
  • 1.2K
  • 10 Sep 2020
Topic Review
EndMT
Endothelial mesenchymal transition (EndMT) is a complex biological process in which endothelial cells lose their specific markers, such as vascular endothelial cadherin (VE-cadherin), and acquire a mesenchymal or myofibroblastic phenotype, expressing specific products, such as α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and type I collagen.
  • 1.2K
  • 02 Jul 2021
Topic Review
Renin–Angiotensin-System-Induced Cardiac Remodelling
The renin–angiotensin system (RAS) indicates its central role in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular remodelling via both hemodynamic alterations and direct growth and the proliferation effects of angiotensin II or aldosterone resulting in the hypertrophy of cardiomyocytes, the proliferation of fibroblasts, and inflammatory immune cell activation. 
  • 1.2K
  • 18 May 2021
Topic Review
The Polarized Cardiac Arrest
The concept of “polarized arrest” is attractive because maintaining the membrane potential close to the resting potential value reduces the untoward effects of Ca2+ loading. A polarised tissue is also more resistant to ischemia and inflammations reported by several in vitro and animal studies. The future of polarized arrest is an exciting one and may play an important role in treating the next generation of patients who are older, sicker with multiple comorbidities and require more complex operations with prolonged cross-clamping times.
  • 1.2K
  • 26 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Oxidative Stress in Cardiovascular Diseases
       This entry aims to introduce the physiological roles and pathological implications of oxidative stress in cardiovascular tissues
  • 1.2K
  • 28 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Types of Dysrhythmias
Dysrhythmia is a term referring to the occurrence of spontaneous and repetitive changes in potentials with parameters deviating from those considered normal. The term refers to heart anomalies but has a broader meaning. Dysrhythmias may concern the heart, neurological system, digestive system, and sensory organs. Ion currents conducted through ion channels are a universal phenomenon. The occurrence of channel abnormalities will therefore result in disorders with clinical manifestations depending on the affected tissue, but phenomena from other tissues and organs may also manifest themselves. 
  • 1.2K
  • 04 Jan 2024
Topic Review
Short-Chain Fatty Acid Receptors and Cardiovascular Function
Free fatty acids (FFAs) are metabolically produced and utilized as energy substrates during almost every biological process in the human body. Contrary to long- and medium-chain FFAs, which are mainly synthesized from dietary triglycerides, short-chain FFAs (SCFAs) derive from the gut microbiota-mediated fermentation of indigestible dietary fiber. Originally thought to serve only as energy sources, FFAs are now known to act as ligands for a specific group of cell surface receptors called FFA receptors (FFARs), thereby inducing intracellular signaling to exert a variety of cellular and tissue effects. All FFARs are G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) that play integral roles in the regulation of metabolism, immunity, inflammation, hormone/neurotransmitter secretion, etc. Four different FFAR types are known to date, with FFAR1 (formerly known as GPR40) and FFAR4 (formerly known as GPR120) mediating long- and medium-chain FFA actions, while FFAR3 (formerly GPR41) and FFAR2 (formerly GPR43) are essentially the SCFA receptors (SCFARs), responding to all SCFAs, including acetic acid, propionic acid, and butyric acid. As with various other organ systems/tissues, the important roles the SCFARs (FFAR2 and FFAR3) play in physiology and in various disorders of the cardiovascular system have been revealed over the last fifteen years.
  • 1.2K
  • 29 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Human Cardiac Muscle Patches in Cardiac Tissue Engineering
Tissue engineering has paved the way for the development of artificial human cardiac muscle patches (hCMPs) and cardiac tissue analogs, especially for treating Myocardial infarction (MI), often by increasing its regenerative abilities.
  • 1.2K
  • 01 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Epigenetics of Atrial Fibrillation
Atrial fibrillation (AF) is known to be the most common supraventricular arrhythmia affecting up to 1% of the general population. Its prevalence exponentially increases with age and could reach up to 8% in the elderly population. The management of AF is a complex issue that is addressed by extensive ongoing basic and clinical research. AF centers around different types of disturbances, including ion channel dysfunction, Ca2+-handling abnormalities, and structural remodeling. 
  • 1.2K
  • 15 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Application of Nanotechnologies in Ischemic Heart Disease
Nanotechnology focuses on atomic and molecular structures with dimensions of 0.1–100 nm. The resulting nanomaterials exhibit distinct mechanical, electrical, thermal, magnetic and imaging features that facilitate novel and unique applications in different branches of science, such as nanomedicine, nanobiology and nanobiotechnology.
  • 1.2K
  • 09 Nov 2021
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