Encyclopedia
Scholarly Community
Encyclopedia
Entry
Video
Image
Journal
Book
News
About
Log in/Sign up
Submit
Entry
Video
Image
Subject:
All Disciplines
Arts & Humanities
Biology & Life Sciences
Business & Economics
Chemistry & Materials Science
Computer Science & Mathematics
Engineering
Environmental & Earth Sciences
Medicine & Pharmacology
Physical Sciences
Public Health & Healthcare
Social Sciences
Sort:
Hottest
Latest
Alphabetical (A-Z)
Alphabetical (Z-A)
Type:
All
Topic Review
Biography
Topic Review
Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
Uncontrolled Type 2 diabetes is associated with altered metabolism resulting in microvascular and macrovascular diseases and enhanced susceptibility to Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection.
1.3K
31 Jul 2020
Topic Review
Type 2 Diabetes and Postprandial Dysmetabolism
The postprandial state is known as the metabolic assessment period during and after a meal (6–12 h), which involves the digestion and absorption of nutrients, mainly fatty acids and carbohydrates from food. This state spans most of the day, more than 16 h, and is characterized by an increase in glycemia and lipidemia associated with systemic low-grade inflammation. Inflammation is an essential component of innate (nonspecific) immunity and host defense, but a chronic systemic low-grade inflammatory state is also the basis of the metabolic syndrome.
228
19 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Type 2 Diabetes and P450
The most frequent form of diabetes is type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) which is often part of a metabolic syndrome (hyperglycaemia, hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, abdominal obesity) that usually requires the use of several medications from different drug classes to bring each of these conditions under control. T2DM is associated with an increase in inflammatory markers such as interleukin-6 (IL-6) and the tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α). Higher levels of IL-6 and TNF-α are associated with a downregulation of several drug metabolizing enzymes, especially the cytochrome P450 (P450) isoforms CYP3As and CYP2C19. A decrease in these P450 isoenzymes may lead to unexpected rise in plasma levels of substrates of these enzymes. It could also give rise to a mismatch between the genotypes determined for these enzymes, the predicted phenotypes based on these genotypes and the phenotypes observed clinically. This phenomenon is described as phenoconversion. Phenoconversion typically results from either a disease (such as T2DM) or concomitant administration of medications inducing or inhibiting (including competitive or non-competitive inhibition) a P450 isoenzyme used by other substrates for their elimination. Phenoconversion could have a significant impact on drug effects and genotypic-focused clinical outcomes.
710
11 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Type 2 Diabetes
Type 2 diabetes is a disorder characterized by abnormally high blood sugar levels. In this form of diabetes, the body stops using and making insulin properly. Insulin is a hormone produced in the pancreas that helps regulate blood sugar levels. Specifically, insulin controls how much glucose (a type of sugar) is passed from the blood into cells, where it is used as an energy source. When blood sugar levels are high (such as after a meal), the pancreas releases insulin to move the excess glucose into cells, which reduces the amount of glucose in the blood.
893
07 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Type 2 Cystatins in Human Immune and Cancer
Type 2 cystatins are a group of small secreted protease inhibitors that regulate cysteine protease cathepsins and legumain. These enzymes regulate important cellular processes that are linked to the immune response and tumor progression, playing important roles in both autoimmune diseases and various types of cancers. Cysteine cathepsins are associated with the development of autoimmune diseases, tumor progression, and metastasis. Cystatins are categorized into three subfamilies: type 1, type 2, and type 3. The type 2 cystatin subfamily is the largest, containing 10 members, and consists entirely of small secreted proteins. Although type 2 cystatins have many shared biological roles, each member differs in structure, post-translational modifications (e.g., glycosylation), and expression in different cell types. These distinctions allow the type 2 cystatins to have unique biological functions and properties.
191
01 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Type 1 Fimbriae (Pili)
Type 1 fimbriae (pili) are an important colonization factor that can contribute to diseases such as urinary tract infections and neonatal meningitis.
565
10 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus
Patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) present elevated levels of cytokines including interleukin-1a (IL), IL-1β, IL-2, IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), suggesting the pre-existence of chronic inflammation, which, in turn, has been considered the major risk factor of adverse COVID-19 outcomes in many cohorts. Even more importantly, oxidative stress is a key player in COVID-19 pathogenesis and determines disease severity. It is well-known that extreme glucose excursions, the prominent feature of T1DM, are a potent mediator of oxidative stress through several pathways including the activation of protein kinase C (PKC) and the increased production of advanced glycation end products (AGEs). Additionally, chronic endothelial dysfunction and the hypercoagulant state observed in T1DM, in combination with the direct damage of endothelial cells by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), may result in endothelial and microcirculation impairment, which contribute to the pathogenesis of acute respiratory syndrome and multi-organ failure. The binding of SARS-CoV-2 to angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptors in pancreatic b-cells permits the direct destruction of b-cells, which contributes to the development of new-onset diabetes and the induction of diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) in patients with T1DM. Large clinical studies are required to clarify the exact pathways through which T1DM results in worse COVID-19 outcomes.
530
19 May 2021
Topic Review
Type 1 Diabetes and Gut Microbiota
Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is a multifactorial autoimmune disease driven by T-cells against the insulin-producing islet β-cells, resulting in a marked loss of β-cell mass and function. A dysbiotic gut microbial profile has been associated with T1D patients. Moreover, new evidence propose that perturbation in gut microbiota may influence the T1D onset and progression. One of the prominent features in clinically silent phase before the onset of T1D is the presence of a microbiota characterized by low numbers of commensals butyrate producers, thus negatively influencing the gut permeability. The loss of gut permeability leads to the translocation of microbes and microbial metabolites and could lead to the activation of immune cells. Moreover, microbiota-based therapies to slow down disease progression or reverse T1D have shown promising results.
498
07 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Type 1 Diabetes
Type 1 diabetes is a disorder characterized by abnormally high blood sugar levels. In this form of diabetes, specialized cells in the pancreas called beta cells stop producing insulin. Insulin controls how much glucose (a type of sugar) is passed from the blood into cells for conversion to energy. Lack of insulin results in the inability to use glucose for energy or to control the amount of sugar in the blood.
984
04 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Type
In biology, a type is a particular specimen (or in some cases a group of specimens) of an organism to which the scientific name of that organism is formally attached. In other words, a type is an example that serves to anchor or centralize the defining features of that particular taxon. In older usage (pre-1900 in botany), a type was a taxon rather than a specimen. A taxon is a scientifically named grouping of organisms with other like organisms, a set that includes some organisms and excludes others, based on a detailed published description (for example a species description) and on the provision of type material, which is usually available to scientists for examination in a major museum research collection, or similar institution.
1.1K
02 Dec 2022
Page
of
5504
Featured Entry Collections
>>
Featured Books
>>
Encyclopedia of Social Sciences
Chief Editor:
Michael McAleer
Encyclopedia of COVID-19
Chief Editor:
Stephen Bustin
Encyclopedia of Fungi
Chief Editor:
Luis V. Lopez-Llorca
Encyclopedia of Digital Society, Industry 5.0 and Smart City
Chief Editor:
Sandro Serpa
Entry
Video
Image
Journal
Book
News
About
Log in/Sign up
New Entry
New Video
New Images
About
Terms and Conditions
Privacy Policy
Advisory Board
Contact
Partner
ScholarVision Creations
Feedback
Top
Feedback
×
Help Center
Browse our user manual, common Q&A, author guidelines, etc.
Rate your experience
Let us know your experience and what we could improve.
Report an error
Is something wrong? Please let us know!
Other feedback
Other feedback you would like to report.
×
Did you find what you were looking for?
Love
Like
Neutral
Dislike
Hate
0
/500
Email
Do you agree to share your valuable feedback publicly on
Encyclopedia
’s homepage?
Yes, I agree. Encyclopedia can post it.
No, I do not agree. I would not like to post my testimonial.
Webpage
Upload a screenshot
(Max file size 2MB)
Submit
Back
Close
×