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Natural Disasters: Origins, Impacts, Management
Natural hazards are processes that serve as triggers for natural disasters. Natural hazards can be classified into six categories. Geophysical or geological hazards relate to movement in solid earth. Their examples include earthquakes and volcanic activity. Hydrological hazards relate to the movement of water and include floods, landslides, and wave action. Meteorological hazards are storms, extreme temperatures, and fog. Climatological hazards are increasingly related to climate change and include droughts and wildfires. Biological hazards are caused by exposure to living organisms and/or their toxic substances. The COVID-19 virus is an example of a biological hazard. Extraterrestrial hazards are caused by asteroids, meteoroids, and comets as they pass near earth or strike earth. In addition to local damage, they can change earth inter planetary conditions that can affect the Earth’s magnetosphere, ionosphere, and thermosphere. This entry presents an overview of origins, impacts, and management of natural disasters. It describes processes that have potential to cause natural disasters. It outlines a brief history of impacts of natural hazards on the human built environment and the common techniques adopted for natural disaster preparedness. It also lays out challenges in dealing with disasters caused by natural hazards and points to new directions in warding off the adverse impact of such disasters. 
  • 4.7K
  • 13 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Properties of Phase Change Materials
The main drawback of phase change materials (PCMs) is their low thermal conductivity, which limits the possibilities of a wide range of implementations. Therefore, the researchers, as found in the literature, proposed several methods to improve the thermal conductivity of PCMs, including inserting high thermal conductivity materials in nano-, micro-, and macro-scales, as well as encapsulation of PCMs. However, these inserts impact the other properties of PCMs like latent heat, melting temperature, thermal stability, and cycling stability. 
  • 4.8K
  • 18 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Deep Cryogenic Treatment
Deep cryogenic treatment (DCT) is a type of cryogenic treatment, where a metallic material is subjected to temperatures below -150°C, normally to temperatures of liquid nitrogen (-196 °C). When a material is exposed to DCT as a part of heat treatment, changes in microstructure are induced due to new grain formation, changes in grain size, change in the solubility of atoms, movement of dislocations, alteration of crystal structure, and finally new phase formation. The metallic material's performance and later performance of manufactured components and tools from this specific material are dependent on the selection of proper design, proper material, accuracy with which the tool is made and application of proper heat treatment, including any eventual DCT. Metallic materials are ferrous and non-ferrous metals. In the last years ferrous metals (different grades of steel) and non-ferrous alloys (aluminum, magnesium, titanium, nickel etc.) have been increasingly treated with DCT to alter their properties. DCT treatment has shown to reduce density of defects in crystal structure, increase wear resistance of material, increase hardness, improve toughness, and reduce tensile strength and corrosion resistance. However, some researchers also reported results showing no change in properties (toughness, hardness, corrosion resistance, etc.) or even deterioration when subjected to DCT treatment. This leads to a lack of consistency and reliability of the treatment process, which is needed for successful application in industry. This review provides a synopsis of DCT usage and resulting effects on treated materials used in automotive industry.
  • 4.8K
  • 29 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Fresh Fruit Supply Chain Optimization
The fresh fruit chain has been recognized as a very important and strategic part of the economic development of many countries. The planning framework for production and distribution is highly complex as a result. Mathematical models have been developed over the decades to deal with this complexity. This review focuses on the recent progress in mathematically based decision making to account for uncertainties in the fresh fruit supply chain
  • 4.8K
  • 27 Jul 2021
Topic Review
Current Applications of Membrane Bioreactors
A membrane bioreactor (MBR) can be described as a chamber designed for a biochemical transformation combined with a membrane separation process. The membrane can be used for different purposes inside the bioreactor, such as the addition of a reactant or the selective removal of one of the reaction products. Moreover, membranes can be utilized to retain the biocatalyst or act as the support for the biocatalyst or for the separation of enzymes by size exclusion.
  • 4.8K
  • 21 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Solar Photovoltaic Systems Faults
This entry provides an overview of common Solar PV system faults.
  • 4.8K
  • 17 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Toyota Allion
The Toyota Allion (Japanese: トヨタ・アリオン, Toyota Arion) and its twin the Toyota Premio (Japanese: トヨタ・プレミオ, Toyota Puremio) are sedans sold in Japan since 2001 by Toyota. The sedans are designated as a compact car by Japanese dimension regulations and the exterior dimensions do not change with periodic updates. The Allion replaced the Carina, a model that first appeared in 1970. The Carina ED, a four-door hardtop coupe that appeared in 1985, was replaced by the Brevis, which was briefly available with the Allion until 2007. Unlike Toyota's other vehicles, the Allion and Premio are not exported, and are exclusively sold in Japan only. The Premio is the successor of the Corona which first appeared in 1957. The Corona EXiV, a four-door hardtop coupe that appeared in 1989, was replaced by the Progrès, which was also briefly available with the Premio until 2007. The Allion is exclusive to Japanese Toyota dealerships Toyota Store as a smaller companion to the Crown, while the Premio is exclusive to Toyopet Store locations, as a smaller companion to the Mark X. Both cars are related to the Avensis, which is an imported five-door liftback from Europe, available at all Japanese dealership locations. The Camry, which is the largest car exclusive to Toyota Corolla Store locations, is slightly larger, and based on appearance packages, offers the same luxury or performance features found in the Allion or Premio. The name "Allion" is created based on the phrase "all-in-one", while "Premio" is a play on words for "premium". Mechanically, they are identical to the Avensis which is exported new internationally as well as sold in Japan. The Allion/Premio are only offered as 4-door sedans, while the Avensis is available only as a five-door liftback. The first generation Premio is an upscale, luxurious sedan in comparison to the Allion, which has a more youthful, sporting nature. Wood trim and chrome accents gives the Premio an elegant look while the Allion considered to be a sporty or executive type car. Appearance modification options made for the first generation Allion are not made or marketed for the Premio. The second generation cars share the interior appearances and optional equipment, with exterior visual differences. Three options packages are offered with the three different engines offered, coupled with the choice of front- or four-wheel drive, thereby giving Japanese buyers options as to which annual road tax obligation they are willing to pay.
  • 4.8K
  • 30 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Bonded Marine Hoses for Floating Offshore Structures (FOS)
By characterisation, a marine hose is a unique type of flexible riser used in fluid transfer. By definition, a marine hose is simply a fluid transfer conduit utilised in transferring, discharging, loading, and transporting fluids from an oil well to the platform of a floating platform or a floating structure. The fluid transfer system for bonded marine hoses is dependent on floating offshore structures (FOS). Single Point Mooring (SPM) systems are component aspects of the techno-economic design and FOS operation.
  • 4.8K
  • 28 Mar 2022
Topic Review
The Intelligent Reflecting Surface
The Intelligent Reflecting Surface (IRS) is a revolutionary technology to improve the performance of wireless data transmission systems. In particular, the wireless signal transmission environment is reconfigured by jointly adjusting a large number of small reflective units
  • 4.8K
  • 08 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Outrigger Canoe
The outrigger canoe is a type of canoe featuring one or more lateral support floats known as outriggers, which are fastened to one or both sides of the main hull. Smaller canoes often employ a single outrigger on the port side, while larger canoes may employ a single-outrigger, double-outrigger, or double-hull configuration (see also catamaran). The sailing canoes are an important part of the Austronesian heritage. They are also very popular in Puerto Rico. Unlike a single-hulled canoe, an outrigger or double-hull canoe generates stability as a result of the distance between its hulls rather than due to the shape of each individual hull. As such, the hulls of outrigger or double-hull canoes are typically longer, narrower and more hydrodynamically efficient than those of single-hull canoes. Compared to other types of canoes, outrigger canoes can be quite fast, yet are also capable of being paddled and sailed in rougher water. This paddling technique, however, differs greatly from kayaking or rowing. The paddle, or blade, used by the paddler is single sided, with either a straight or a double-bend shaft.
  • 4.7K
  • 19 Oct 2022
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