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Topic Review
Erythrocytes for Targeted Drug Delivery
Erythrocytes (red blood cells, RBCs) are the largest population of blood cells in mammals. Their main function is oxygen transfer to cells and body tissues. The lifetime of erythrocytes in the bloodstream is 100–120 days, after which they are removed by the spleen. Due to the unique biophysical properties RBCs can be used as drug carriers in two different ways: by incorporating the drug into the cells or by binding it (using non-specific adsorption or a specific association, involving antibodies or various chemical cross-linking compounds) on the RBCs’ surface. Erythrocytes can act as carriers that prolong the drug’s action due to its gradual release from the carrier; as bioreactors with encapsulated enzymes performing the necessary reactions, while remaining inaccessible to the immune system and plasma proteases; or as a tool for targeted drug delivery to target organs, primarily to cells of the reticuloendothelial system, liver and spleen. To date, erythrocytes have been studied as carriers for a wide range of drugs, such as enzymes, antibiotics, anti-inflammatory, antiviral drugs, etc., and for diagnostic purposes. 
  • 966
  • 22 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Microglia and Macrophages as Emerging Therapies for Stroke
The mechanisms underlying the involvement of microglia and macrophages in both neuroprotection and neurogenesis after stroke are widely acknowledged as having a role in ischemic stroke pathology Since microglia and macrophages are regarded as major players in the pathological progression of ischemic stroke, modulating inflammation and neurological recovery is a hopeful strategy for treating the long-term outcomes after ischemic injury. 
  • 966
  • 28 Mar 2022
Topic Review
The Microbial Hypothesis of Alzheimer’s Disease
The potential contribution of pathogenic microbes to dementia-inducing disease is a subject of considerable importance. Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a neurocognitive disease that slowly destroys brain function, leading to cognitive decline and behavioral and psychiatric disorders. The histopathology of AD is associated with neuronal loss and progressive synaptic dysfunction, accompanied by the deposition of amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide in the form of parenchymal plaques and abnormal aggregated tau protein in the form of neurofibrillary tangles. The AD pathogen hypothesis states that pathogens and microbes act as triggers, interacting with genetic factors to initiate the accumulation of Aβ, hyperphosphorylated tau protein (p-tau), and inflammation in the brain. Evidence indicates that Borrelia sp., HSV-1, VZV (HHV-2), HHV-6/7, oral pathogens, Chlamydophila pneumoniae, and Candida albicans can infect the central nervous system (CNS), evade the immune system, and consequently prevail in the AD brain.
  • 966
  • 06 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Properties and Applications of Levan
Polysaccharides play a crucial role in medicine, pharmacy, and cosmetology, as well as in the production of biofuels and biomaterials. Among microbial biopolymers, microbial levan, a fructose polysaccharide, holds significant promise due to its high productivity and chemical diversity. Levan exhibits a wide range of properties, including film-forming ability, biodegradability, non-toxicity, self-aggregation, encapsulation, controlled release capacity, water retention, immunomodulatory and prebiotic activity, antimicrobial and anticancer activity, as well as high biocompatibility. These exceptional properties position levan as an attractive candidate for nature-based materials in food production, modern cosmetology, medicine, and pharmacy. 
  • 966
  • 26 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Cripto-1 in Tumor Progression
Cripto-1 is an essential protein for human development that plays a key role in the early phase of gastrulation in the differentiation of an embryo as well as assists with wound healing processes. Importantly, Cripto-1 induces epithelial to mesenchymal transition to turn fixed epithelial cells into a more mobile mesenchymal phenotype through the downregulation of epithelial adhesion molecules such as E-cadherin, occludins, and claudins, and the upregulation of mesenchymal, mobile proteins, such as N-cadherin, Snail, and Slug. Consequently, Cripto-1’s role in inducing EMT to promote cell motility is beneficial in embryogenesis, but detrimental in the formation, progression and metastasis of malignant tumors. Indeed, Cripto-1 is found to be upregulated in most cancers, such as breast, lung, gastrointestinal, hepatic, renal, cervical, ovarian, prostate, and skin cancers. Through its role in EMT, Cripto-1 can remodel cancer cells to enable them to travel through the extracellular matrix as well as blood and lymphatic vessels to metastasize to different organs. Additionally, Cripto-1 promotes the survival of cancer stem cells, which can lead to relapse in cancer patients. 
  • 966
  • 06 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Urine Biomarkers of Lupus Nephritis
The kidney is one of the main organs affected by the autoimmune disease systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Lupus nephritis (LN) concerns 30–60% of adult SLE patients and it is significantly associated with an increase in the morbidity and mortality. The definitive diagnosis of LN can only be achieved by histological analysis of renal biopsies, but the invasiveness of this technique is an obstacle for early diagnosis of renal involvement and a proper follow-up of LN patients under treatment. The use of urine for the discovery of non-invasive biomarkers for renal disease in SLE patients is an attractive alternative to repeated renal biopsies, as several studies have described surrogate urinary cells or analytes reflecting the inflammatory state of the kidney, and/or the severity of the disease.
  • 966
  • 13 Jul 2021
Topic Review
Corneal Anatomy and Physiology
The cornea, known as the window of the eye, is optically transparent, including a special structure that is avascular anatomically. This dome-shaped and specialized tissue is located in the anterior part of the eye. Two major roles of the cornea are protecting the eye from harsh environments, and transmitting over 80% of light to inner portions. 
  • 965
  • 22 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Innate Immunity in CKD
Emerging studies suggest that unsolved inflammation will progressively transit into kidney fibrosis that finally results in an irreversible end-stage renal disease (ESRD). Increasing studies have suggested pathogenic roles of innate immunity in the kidney diseases. A better understanding of the underlying mechanisms may uncover a novel therapeutic strategy for ESRD.
  • 965
  • 06 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Trichophyton indotineae
Trichophyton (T.) indotineae is a newly identified dermatophyte species that has been found in a near-epidemic form on the Indian subcontinent. There is evidence of its spread from the Indian subcontinent to a number of countries worldwide. The fungus is identical to genotype VIII within the T. mentagrophytes/T. interdigitale species complex, which was described in 2019 by sequencing the Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) region of ribosomal DNA of the dermatophyte.
  • 964
  • 27 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Cervical Imaging in the Low Resource Setting
Cervical cancer is one of the most significant global health inequities of our time and is the fourth most common cancer in women worldwide, disproportionally affecting developing countries where the disease burden is 84%. Sometimes referred to as a preventable cancer, it progresses slowly, providing a window of time for routine screening in which pre-cancerous lesions can be identified and treated.
  • 964
  • 08 Nov 2022
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