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Topic Review
List of Volcanic Features on Io
This is a list of named volcanic surface features on Jupiter's moon Io. These names have been approved for use by the International Astronomical Union. The features listed below represent a subset of the total known volcanic features on Io's surface with the majority currently not having an officially approved name. The names of volcanic features on Io use a combination of a name derived from mythological figures from around the world related to the Sun, fire, volcanoes, thunder, or smithing, places from the Greek mythological story of Io, Dante's Inferno, or from the name of a nearby feature on Io's surface and an approved descriptive term. The descriptive term used is based on the type of feature named and how it was first discovered. Volcanoes that were first observed as an active feature from observations of a volcanic plume fit under the category of "Eruptive Center" and do not use a descriptive term, though portions of these features may have also received names that do use a descriptive term, like Prometheus Patera or Masubi Fluctus. Lava flows use the descriptive term fluctus or the plural fluctūs, e.g. Acala Fluctus. Volcanic depressions use the term patera or the plural paterae, e.g. Ah Peku Patera. The term has also become the generic term for referring to these structures. Small shield volcanoes use the term tholus or the plural tholi, e.g. Inachus Tholus. Finally, channels carved by volcanic lava flows through thermal erosion use the term vallis or the plural valles. See also the list of mountains on Io and the list of regions on Io.
  • 648
  • 02 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Non-equilibrium Thermodynamic Foundations of the Origin of Life
There is little doubt that life’s origin followed from the known physical and chemical laws of Nature. The most general scientific framework incorporating the laws of Nature and applicable to most known processes to good approximation, is that of thermodynamics and its extensions to treat out-of-equilibrium phenomena. The event of the origin of life should therefore also be amenable to such an analysis. The Thermodynamic Dissipation Theory of the Origin and Evolution of Life postulates that the first molecules of life (the fundamental molecules) were, at their origin, pigments dissipatively structured through photochemical and chemical reactions on the surface of the oceans from simpler and more common precursor molecules in water under the solar long-wavelength UVC (205–285 nm) light of the Archean. They were “designed” by Nature to carry out this thermodynamic imperative of absorbing light in this UVC region and then to dissipate it into heat (longer wavelength photons) released into the environment. 
  • 648
  • 13 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Protein Film Voltammetry
In electrochemistry, protein film voltammetry (or protein film electrochemistry, or direct electrochemistry of proteins) is a technique for examining the behavior of proteins immobilized (either adsorbed or covalently attached) on an electrode. The technique is applicable to proteins and enzymes that engage in electron transfer reactions and it is part of the methods available to study enzyme kinetics. Provided that it makes suitable contact with the electrode surface (electron transfer between the electrode and the protein is direct) and provided that it is not denatured, the protein can be fruitfully interrogated by monitoring current as a function of electrode potential and other experimental parameters. Various electrode materials can be used. Special electrode designs are required to address membrane-bound proteins.
  • 646
  • 02 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Soyuz 1
Soyuz 1 (Russian: Союз 1, Union 1) was a crewed spaceflight of the Soviet space program. Launched into orbit on 23 April 1967 carrying cosmonaut colonel Vladimir Komarov, Soyuz 1 was the first crewed flight of the Soyuz spacecraft. The flight was plagued with technical issues, and Komarov was killed when the descent module crashed into the ground due to a parachute failure. This was the first in-flight fatality in the history of spaceflight. The original mission plan was complex, involving a rendezvous with Soyuz 2 and an exchange of crew members before returning to Earth. However, the launch of Soyuz 2 was called off due to thunderstorms.
  • 645
  • 22 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Nanotechnology Education
Nanotechnology education involves a multidisciplinary natural science education with courses such as physics, chemistry, mathematics and molecular biology. It is being offered by many universities around the world. The first program involving nanotechnology was offered by the University of Toronto's Engineering Science program, where nanotechnology could be taken as an option. Here is a partial list of universities offering nanotechnology education, and the degrees offered (Bachelor of Science, Master of Science, and/or Ph.D in Nanotechnology).
  • 645
  • 14 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Si-Compatible Nanostructured Photodetectors
Latest advances in the field of nanostructured photodetectors are considered, stating the types and materials, and highlighting the features of operation. Special attention is paid to the group-IV material photodetectors, including Ge, Si, Sn, and their solid solutions. Among the various designs, photodetectors with quantum wells, quantum dots, and quantum wires are highlighted. Such nanostructures have a number of unique properties, that made them striking to scientists’ attention and device applications. Nanostructures with quantum wells (QW) and quantum dots (QD) are very widely used to create photodetectors in the visible and infrared ranges. At the same time, for various applications, various semiconductor material systems are used that most fully satisfy the specific requirements for device structures: III–V (GaAs, AlGaAs, etc.), II–VI (CdHgTe), IV–IV (GeSi, GeSn, GeSiSn), and others.
  • 645
  • 01 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Figures of Merit for Photodetectors
Photodetector are devices used to convert light signals into electrical signals and have a wide range of applications in optical communication, imaging and industrial security. With the emergency of new materials, new kinds of photodetectors are developed, such as van der Waals heterojunction photodetectors. In order to assess the performance of photodetectors, several key parameters are introduced.
  • 645
  • 09 Oct 2023
Topic Review
Holographic Optical Tweezers for Biomedical Applications
Holographic optical tweezers (HOT) is a programmable technique used for manipulation of microsized samples. In combination with computer-generation holography (CGH), a spatial light modulator reshapes the light distribution within the focal area of the optical tweezers. HOT can be used to realize real-time multiple-point manipulation in fluid, and this is useful in biological research.
  • 641
  • 27 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Bismuth Indium
The elements bismuth and indium have relatively low melting points when compared to other metals, and their alloy Bismuth Indium is classified as a fusible alloy. It has a melting point lower than the eutectic point of the tin lead alloy. The most common application of the alloy is as a low temperature solder, which can also contain, besides Bismuth and Indium, lead, cadmium and tin.
  • 641
  • 10 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Solar System Model
Solar System models, especially mechanical models, called orreries, that illustrate the relative positions and motions of the planets and moons in the Solar System have been built for centuries. While they often showed relative sizes, these models were usually not built to scale. The enormous ratio of interplanetary distances to planetary diameters makes constructing a scale model of the Solar System a challenging task. As one example of the difficulty, the distance between the Earth and the Sun is almost 12,000 times the diameter of the Earth. If the smaller planets are to be easily visible to the naked eye, large outdoor spaces are generally necessary, as is some means for highlighting objects that might otherwise not be noticed from a distance. The Boston Museum of Science has placed bronze models of the planets in major public buildings, all on similar stands with interpretive labels. For example, the model of Jupiter is located in the cavernous South Station waiting area. The properly-scaled, basket-ball-sized model is 1.3 miles (2.14 km) from the model Sun which is located at the museum, graphically illustrating the immense empty space in the Solar System. The objects in such large models do not move. Traditional orreries often did move, and some used clockworks to display the relative speeds of objects accurately. These can be thought of as being correctly scaled in time, instead of distance.
  • 640
  • 01 Dec 2022
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