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Topic Review
Geant4-DNA Simulation Toolkit
The Geant4-DNA low energy extension of the Geant4 Monte Carlo (MC) toolkit is a continuously evolving MC simulation code permitting mechanistic studies of cellular radiobiological effects. Geant4-DNA considers the physical, chemical, and biological stages of the action of ionizing radiation (in the form of x- and γ-ray photons, electrons and β±-rays, hadrons, α-particles, and a set of heavier ions) in living cells towards a variety of applications ranging from predicting radiotherapy outcomes to radiation protection both on earth and in space.
  • 533
  • 19 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Geiger-Marsden Experiments
The Geiger–Marsden experiments (also called the Rutherford gold foil experiment) were a landmark series of experiments by which scientists learned that every atom has a nucleus where all of its positive charge and most of its mass is concentrated. They deduced this after measuring how an alpha particle beam is scattered when it strikes a thin metal foil. The experiments were performed between 1908 and 1913 by Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden under the direction of Ernest Rutherford at the Physical Laboratories of the University of Manchester.
  • 825
  • 25 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Geiger–Marsden Experiment
The Geiger–Marsden experiments (also called the Rutherford gold foil experiment) were a landmark series of experiments by which scientists discovered that every atom has a nucleus where all of its positive charge and most of its mass is concentrated. They deduced this by measuring how an alpha particle beam is scattered when it strikes a thin metal foil. The experiments were performed between 1908 and 1913 by Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden under the direction of Ernest Rutherford at the Physical Laboratories of the University of Manchester.
  • 5.7K
  • 21 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Gemini
Gemini, named after the Latin word for "twins," is a prominent constellation in the northern celestial hemisphere. Representing the twins Castor and Pollux from Greek mythology, Gemini is known for its two bright stars that mark the heads of the twins. 
  • 245
  • 15 Mar 2024
Topic Review
Generation/Amplification of Mid-Infrared Few-Cycle Pulse
The mid-infrared (MIR) wavelength is usually defined in the range of 2–20 μm (500–5000 cm−1). With its unique properties and wide application prospects, lasers in this band have attracted a great deal of attention from researchers all over the world.
  • 753
  • 30 Jul 2021
Topic Review
Gent (Hyperelastic Model)
The Gent hyperelastic material model is a phenomenological model of rubber elasticity that is based on the concept of limiting chain extensibility. In this model, the strain energy density function is designed such that it has a singularity when the first invariant of the left Cauchy-Green deformation tensor reaches a limiting value [math]\displaystyle{ I_m }[/math]. The strain energy density function for the Gent model is where [math]\displaystyle{ \mu }[/math] is the shear modulus and [math]\displaystyle{ J_m = I_m -3 }[/math]. In the limit where [math]\displaystyle{ I_m \rightarrow \infty }[/math], the Gent model reduces to the Neo-Hookean solid model. This can be seen by expressing the Gent model in the form A Taylor series expansion of [math]\displaystyle{ \ln\left[1 - (I_1-3)x\right] }[/math] around [math]\displaystyle{ x = 0 }[/math] and taking the limit as [math]\displaystyle{ x\rightarrow 0 }[/math] leads to which is the expression for the strain energy density of a Neo-Hookean solid. Several compressible versions of the Gent model have been designed. One such model has the form (the below strain energy function yields a non zero hydrostatic stress at no deformation, refer https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10659-005-4408-x for compressible Gent models). where [math]\displaystyle{ J = \det(\boldsymbol{F}) }[/math], [math]\displaystyle{ \kappa }[/math] is the bulk modulus, and [math]\displaystyle{ \boldsymbol{F} }[/math] is the deformation gradient.
  • 967
  • 21 Nov 2022
Topic Review
GEO600
GEO600 is a gravitational wave detector located near Sarstedt in the South of Hanover, Germany. It is designed and operated by scientists from the Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics, Max Planck Institute of Quantum Optics and the Leibniz Universität Hannover, along with University of Glasgow, University of Birmingham and Cardiff University in the United Kingdom, and is funded by the Max Planck Society and the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC). GEO600 is part of a worldwide network of gravitational wave detectors. This instrument, and its sister interferometric detectors, when operational, are some of the most sensitive gravitational wave detectors ever designed. They are designed to detect relative changes in distance of the order of 10−21, about the size of a single atom compared to the distance from the Sun to the Earth. GEO600 is capable of detecting gravitational waves in the frequency range 50 Hz to 1.5 kHz. Construction on the project began in 1995.
  • 476
  • 03 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Geothrix Fermentans
Geothrix fermentans is a rod-shaped, anaerobic bacterium. It is about 0.1 µm in diameter and ranges from 2-3 µm in length. Cell arrangement occurs singly and in chains. Geothrix fermentans can normally be found in aquatic sediments such as in aquifers. As an anaerobic chemoorganotroph, this organism is best known for its ability to use electron acceptors Fe(III), as well as other high potential metals. It also uses a wide range of substrates as electron donors. Research on metal reduction by G. fermentans has contributed to understanding more about the geochemical cycling of metals in the environment.
  • 364
  • 25 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Gloss Measurements
The appearance of a surface depends on four main appearance attributes, namely color, gloss, texture, and translucency. Gloss is an important attribute that people use to understand surface appearance, right after color.
  • 112
  • 03 Jan 2024
Topic Review
Glossary of Nanotechnology
This glossary of nanotechnology is a list of definitions of terms and concepts relevant to nanotechnology, its sub-disciplines, and related fields. For more inclusive glossaries concerning related fields of science and technology, see Glossary of chemistry terms, Glossary of physics, Glossary of biology, and Glossary of engineering.
  • 596
  • 02 Nov 2022
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