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The Evolutionary System of the Biosphere and the Metameric Concept of Its Evolution: From the Past to the Future
We offer a detailed description of our previously published new concept of the evolution of the biosphere as an integral system of its states over time, united by development trends. The structure of the biosphere is considered as a hierarchical fractal system, and the elementary unit of the biosphere is an ecosystem. The fractal structure of the biosphere corresponds to the emergent principle: each lower level is an element of a more complex system and has its own properties. The proposed concept of biosphere evolution is based on the general categories of dialectics: states and interstates, continuity and discreteness, reproducibility and uniqueness. The evolutionary history of the biosphere is a metameric picture of changing states and interstates. The most important feature of the biosphere organization in space–time is a complex system of continua. The development of an integral biospheric system occurs in a time continuum: in the biosphere, the differences between the early and subsequent states are quite significant and obvious. Moreover, these differences are associated with fundamental complications, development, which is, in fact, evolution. The states of the biosphere in certain periods are linked by trends that form an evolutionary system. Continuing states, when the system remains self-identical for a long period, are replaced by new states through interstates. Based on the principle of actualism, the problems of the biosphere’s future and evolutionary trends of the biosphere under anthropogenic impact are considered.
  • 345
  • 28 May 2024
Topic Review
The Evolution of the Shigella Pathovar
Shigella spp. cause hundreds of millions of intestinal infections each year. They target the mucosa of the human colon and are an important model of intracellular bacterial pathogenesis. Shigella is a pathovar of Escherichia coli that is characterized by the presence of a large invasion plasmid, pINV, which encodes the characteristic type III secretion system and icsA used for cytosol invasion and cell-to-cell spread, respectively. 
  • 238
  • 13 Jul 2023
Topic Review
The Evolution of Fermented Milks
The manufacture of fermented milk products has a long history, and these products were initially produced either from spontaneous fermentation or using a batch of previously produced product, that is, back-slopping. Milk of different mammal species has traditionally been used for the manufacture of fermented milk products. Cow’s milk is the basis for most dairy fermented products around the world. Milk from other mammals, including sheep, goat, camel, mare, buffalo, and yak may have been historically more important and remain so in certain regions. The milks from different species have differences in chemical composition and in certain, vital for the fermentation, components. The diversity of fermented milk products is further influenced by the wide variety of manufacturing practices. A great number of fermented dairy products have been traditionally produced worldwide, and many of them are still produced either following the same traditional process or manufactured industrially, using standardized processes under controlled conditions with specified starter cultures.
  • 1.1K
  • 05 Dec 2022
Topic Review
The Evidence of Benefits of (Poly)phenols against T2DM
(Poly)phenols have anti-diabetic properties that are mediated through the regulation of the main biomarkers associated with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) (fasting plasma glucose (FPG), glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), insulin resistance (IR)), as well as the modulation of other metabolic, inflammatory and oxidative stress pathways.
  • 361
  • 08 Sep 2022
Topic Review
The Establishment of Pregnancy and Placental Formation
The continuing progress in our understanding of the complexity of interactions between the maternal organism and the early embryo is changing the overall outlook on the initial steps in establishing a pregnancy through placental formation. The first two weeks after fertilization must today be viewed as the critical period during which a major embryo selection process takes place in which a proportion that may surpass 50% of them is physiologically eliminated because they are unfit to progress toward birth.
  • 237
  • 29 Jan 2024
Topic Review
The Epithelial–Mesenchymal Transition in Cancer
The transition between epithelial and mesenchymal phenotype is emerging as a key determinant of tumor cell invasion and metastasis. It is a plastic process in which epithelial cells first acquire the ability to invade the extracellular matrix and migrate into the bloodstream via transdifferentiation into mesenchymal cells, a phenomenon known as epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT), and then reacquire the epithelial phenotype, the reverse process called mesenchymal–epithelial transition (MET), to colonize a new organ. During all metastatic stages, metabolic changes, which give cancer cells the ability to adapt to increased energy demand and to withstand a hostile new environment, are also important determinants of successful cancer progression.
  • 433
  • 24 Jan 2022
Topic Review
The Epigenetic Effects of Diet
The pathophysiology behind obesity involves a myriad of genetic, epigenetic, physiological, and macroenvironmental factors that drive food intake and appetite and increase the obesity risk for susceptible individuals. Metabolically, food intake and appetite are regulated via intricate processes and feedback systems between the brain, gastrointestinal system, adipose and endocrine tissues that aim to maintain body weight and energy homeostasis but are also responsive to environmental cues that may trigger overconsumption of food beyond homeostatic needs.
  • 562
  • 07 Jan 2021
Topic Review
The Epididymis
The epididymis is a convoluted, crescent-shaped structure that connects the testis to the vas deferens and has four main anatomical regions each with unique characteristics and functions: the initial segment, caput (head), corpus (body) and cauda (tail).
  • 3.1K
  • 05 Nov 2020
Topic Review
The Endocannabinoid System and Kidney Disease
The endocannabinoid system (ECS) is an important signaling pathway that involves the binding of lipid ligands, known as cannabinoids, to cannabinoid receptors, and it encompasses, as well, the metabolic enzymes of endocannabinoids. Endocannabinoid signaling plays crucial roles in human physiology in the function of multiple systems. The two cannabinoid receptors, cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1) and cannabinoid receptor 2 (CB2), are cell membrane proteins that interact with both exogenous and endogenous bioactive lipid ligands, or endocannabinoids. The evidence has established that endocannabinoid signaling operates within the human kidney, as well as suggests the important role it plays in multiple renal pathologies. 
  • 392
  • 23 May 2023
Topic Review
The Endocannabinoid System (ECS)
The endocannabinoid system (ECS) employs a huge network of molecules (receptors, ligands, and enzymatic machinery molecules) whose interactions with other cellular networks have still not been fully elucidated. Endogenous cannabinoids are molecules with the primary function of control of multiple metabolic pathways. Maintenance of tissue and cellular homeostasis by functional fine-tuning of essential metabolic pathways is one of the key characteristics of the ECS. It is implicated in a variety of physiological and pathological states and an attractive pharmacological target yet to reach its full potential. 
  • 1.1K
  • 20 Apr 2021
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