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Topic Review
Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Signaling Pathway
The basic composition of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway is divided into three modules in sequence, with a cascade effect: MAPK kinase kinase (MAPKKK), MAPK kinase (MAPKK), and MAPK. The MAPK signaling pathway is activated in over 50% of human oral cancer cases.
  • 1.7K
  • 11 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Cardiac Glycosides
Cardiac glycosides (CG’s) are naturally occurring biologically active small molecules, used to diagnose a diversity of heart diseases such as congestive heart failure and cardiac arrhythmia. The story of CG’s started over 100 years ago when Sir William Withering reported the use of foxglove plant for treating “dropsy” associated with congestive heart failure and the foxglove plant (Digitalis purpurea) was still in the use for the extraction of Digoxin, a cardiac glycoside used to treat congestive heart failures (Johnson., 2012). The core structure of CGs comprises a steroid nucleus attached to a five-membered lactone ring (cardenolide) or six-membered lactone rings (bufadienolides) along with sugar moieties. Major plant-derived CGs were obtained from plant families of Apocynaceae, Scrophulariaceae, and Asparagaceae (Thevitia neriifolia, Neerium oleander, Digitalis purpurea, Digitalis lanata, Urginea maritime, and Strophanthus kombe). Structurally, all these contain a core steroid nucleus connected with sugar moiety at C3 position and lactone moiety at C17 position (Figure 1.3). The pharmacological significance of all the CG’s lies in the core steroid confirmation that contains A/B and C/D cis- portions and the properties such as pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics lie between the confined sugars molecules (Pongrakhananon., 2013). Apart from the plant sources, CG’s were also isolated from several animal species such as bufadienolide was isolated from frogs, and also mammalian tissues contain a cardiac glycoside which is similar to endogenous digitalis (Melero et al., 2000). Quite a few studies have conveyed that the human body does contain a lot more CG’s in different parts. For example, the plasma membrane contains Ouabain and Proscillaridin A and human urine contains digoxin and marinobufagenin whereas human lenses consist of 19-norbufalin (Schoner and Scheiner-Bobis., 2007). In the year 1785, William Withering was the first person to use a digitalis compound from Digitalis purpurea to treat congestive heart failures. Currently, Digoxin is used for treating congestive heart failures. The mechanism of action of Digoxin is that it can inhibit the sodium-potassium pump (Na+/K+-ATPase). Living organisms maintain more percentage of K+ within the cell and less percentage of Na+. However, the scenario at the outside of the cell is quite opposite to the intracellular conditions where a high percentage of Na+ and less percentage of K+ will be maintained. Hence, there is a concentration incline that exists between the outside and inside cellular environments, which will be maintained by sodium-potassium pump. The Na+/K+-ATPase is recognized as a transmembrane protein whose functions are to maintain ionic balance in the heart tissue. Na+/K+-ATPase utilizes ATP as the whole energy source, to exchange two K+ ions inside the cell and pushes three Na+ ions outside to maintain intra cellular homeostasis. Also, Na+/K+-ATPase transports glucose and amino acids by keeping less concentration of Na+ within the cell and helps in the maintenance of electrochemical incline. The increment of the Na+ level inside the cell retort to CGs fortifies the ion exchange mechanism. This leads to the expansion of intracellular Ca2+ percentage which therefore promotes organelle instances such as myocardial contractibility, and generates optimistic inotropic effects in the heart cell with CGs (Kaplan., 2002).  
  • 1.7K
  • 12 Aug 2020
Topic Review
Aphid Transmission of Potyvirus
Potyviruses are the largest group of plant infecting RNA viruses that cause significant losses in a wide range of crops across the globe. The majority of viruses in the genus Potyvirus are transmitted by aphids in a non-persistent, non-circulative manner and have been extensively studied vis-à-vis their structure, taxonomy, evolution, diagnosis, transmission, and molecular interactions with hosts.
  • 1.7K
  • 21 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Connective Tissue
This is an overview of the main molecular components, structural organization and main functions of the connective tissue, which is constitutively present in tissues and organs of the body. Connective tissue is known to provide structural and functional “glue” properties to other tissues. It contains cellular and molecular components that are arranged in several dynamic organizations. Connective tissue is the focus of numerous genetic and nongenetic diseases. Genetic diseases of the connective tissue belong to minority or rare diseases, but no less important than the nongenetic diseases.
  • 1.7K
  • 13 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Bacillus coagulans in Food Industry
Probiotic microorganisms are generally considered to beneficially affect host health when used in adequate amounts. Although generally used in dairy products, they are also widely used in various commercial food products such as fermented meats, cereals, baby foods, fruit juices, and ice creams. Among lactic acid bacteria, Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium are the most commonly used bacteria in probiotic foods, but they are not resistant to heat treatment. Probiotic food diversity is expected to be greater with the use of probiotics, which are resistant to heat treatment and gastrointestinal system conditions. Bacillus coagulans (B. coagulans) has recently attracted the attention of researchers and food manufacturers, as it exhibits characteristics of both the Bacillus and Lactobacillus genera. B. coagulans is a spore-forming bacterium which is resistant to high temperatures with its probiotic activity.
  • 1.7K
  • 04 Jul 2021
Topic Review
Coxsackievirus B3
Coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3) is a non-enveloped single-stranded RNA virus belonging to the genus Enterovirus of the picornavirus family.
  • 1.7K
  • 30 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Plants Anthocyanin Biosynthesis
Anthocyanins are natural pigments with antioxidant effects that exist in various fruits and vegetables. The accumulation of anthocyanins is induced by environmental signals and regulated by transcription factors in plants. Numerous evidence has indicated that among the environmental factors, light is one of the most signal regulatory factors involved in the anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway.
  • 1.7K
  • 25 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Coordinative Carbon and Nitrogen Metabolism
C and N are the most important essential elements constituting organic compounds in plants. The shoots and roots depend on each other by exchanging C and N through the xylem and phloem transport systems. Complex mechanisms regulate C and N metabolism to optimize plant growth, agricultural crop production, and maintenance of the agroecosystem. 
  • 1.7K
  • 22 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Wild Edible Plants in India
Despite significant evidence base on quantifying ecosystem services, the role of biodiversity in supporting such services in diversified landscapes, and how indigenous communities exploit, utilize and manage plant resources in a biocultural regime, remains understudied.  A sum total of 172 WEPs comprising 60 vegetables, 70 fruits, seeds and nuts, 23 underground tubers and 19 mushrooms were collected, consumed, and surplus were marketed by the communities. On average, the number of wild edibles collected annually by households were in the following quantities: 40–240 kg leafy vegetables, 125–386 kg flowers, 120–250 kg fruits, 12–125 kg legumes, 24–120 kg tubers, 5–35 kg mushrooms. Among ethnic groups, the Baiga primitive community utilized 70–90% followed by Gonds (58–81%), Kols (52–78%), Oraons (43–79%), and other communities (38–68%) in different zones. WEPs have contributed to 5–24% (Rs 3559- 12,710) of household income, which was highest in the core zone and lowest in the transition zone. It was observed that WEPs were complemented the diets rather than being a substitute for staple foods. They supplied only 3.7–8.3% of energy and 1.1–4.9% protein requirements; however, they significantly supplemented ascorbic acid, thiamine, calcium, and iron by 38.1–73%, 13.7–35.4%, 17.2–29.1%, 2.6–13.5%, respectively. Significantly higher quantities of nutrients were supplemented in the core zone compared to other zones. WEPs were currently underutilized (less intake) especially in buffer and transition zones, complementing the staple foods and partially supplementing the essential macro- and micro-nutrients. However, these have the potential to fulfill the dietary needs and ensure balanced nutrition, if consumed in recommended portions and sizes.
  • 1.7K
  • 14 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Tracheophyta
Vascular plants (from la vasculum 'duct'), also called tracheophytes (/trəˈkiː.əˌfaɪts/) or collectively Tracheophyta (from grc τραχεῖα ἀρτηρία (trakheîa artēría) 'windpipe', and φυτά (phutá) 'plants'), form a large group of land plants (c. 300,000 accepted known species) that have lignified tissues (the xylem) for conducting water and minerals throughout the plant. They also have a specialized non-lignified tissue (the phloem) to conduct products of photosynthesis. Vascular plants include the clubmosses, horsetails, ferns, gymnosperms (including conifers) and angiosperms (flowering plants). Scientific names for the group include Tracheophyta,:251 Tracheobionta and Equisetopsida sensu lato. Some early land plants (the rhyniophytes) had less developed vascular tissue; the term eutracheophyte has been used for all other vascular plants, including all living ones. Historically, vascular plants were known as "higher plants," as it was believed that they were further evolved than other plants due to being more complex organisms. However, this is an antiquated remnant of the obsolete scala naturae, and the term is generally considered to be unscientific.
  • 1.7K
  • 08 Nov 2022
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