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Topic Review
Plain Meaning Rule
The plain meaning rule, also known as the literal rule, is one of three rules of statutory construction traditionally applied by English courts. The other two are the "mischief rule" and the "golden rule". The plain meaning rule dictates that statutes are to be interpreted using the ordinary meaning of the language of the statute. In other words, a statute is to be read word for word and is to be interpreted according to the ordinary meaning of the language, unless a statute explicitly defines some of its terms otherwise or unless the result would be cruel or absurd. Ordinary words are given their ordinary meaning, technical terms are given their technical meaning, and local, cultural terms are recognized as applicable. The plain meaning rule is the mechanism that prevents courts from taking sides in legislative or political issues. Additionally, it is the mechanism that underlies textualism and, to a certain extent, originalism.
  • 2.7K
  • 30 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Chakma Alphabet
The Chakma alphabet (Ajhā pāṭh), also called Ojhapath, Ojhopath, Aaojhapath, is an abugida used for the Chakma language.
  • 1.0K
  • 30 Oct 2022
Topic Review
SPIF (Patent Identification Format)
SPIF is a standard format for representing patent identification information. SPIF stands for (Simple/Standard/Specific/Special) Patent Identification Format. SPIF restricts the use of non-standard characters in listing patent publication and patent application. At its core, SPIF is a simple asset identification and disambiguation solution. SPIF does not seek to guarantee the existence of an asset, rather, SPIF seeks to uniquely identify assets. SPIF was created with the following principles in mind: The first version of SPIF was released January 29, 2021. SPIF was launched publicly on March 22, 2021. SPIF is managed by the Linux Foundation's Joint Development Foundation Projects, LLC, SPIF Series, Project Name: SPIF Patent Identification Format.
  • 877
  • 30 Oct 2022
Topic Review
List of Current Monarchies
This is a list of current monarchies. (As of 2019), there are 44 sovereign states in the world with a monarch as Head of state. 13 in Asia, 12 in Europe, 10 in North America, 6 in Oceania and 3 in Africa.
  • 21.9K
  • 28 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Jigsaw (Teaching Technique)
The jigsaw technique is a method of organizing classroom activity that makes students dependent on each other to succeed. It breaks classes into groups and breaks assignments into pieces that the group assembles to complete the (jigsaw) puzzle. It was designed by social psychologist Elliot Aronson to help weaken racial cliques in forcibly integrated schools. The Jigsaw method is beneficial for students learning. The technique splits classes into mixed groups to work on small problems that the group collates into a final outcome. For example, an in-class assignment is divided into topics. Students are then split into groups with one member assigned to each topic. Working individually, each student learns about his or her topic and presents it to their group. Next, students gather into groups divided by topic. Each member presents again to the topic group. In same-topic groups, students reconcile points of view and synthesize information. They create a final report. Finally, the original groups reconvene and listen to presentations from each member. The final presentations provide all group members with an understanding of their own material, as well as the findings that have emerged from topic-specific group discussion. It is a cooperative learning method that brings about both individual accountability and achievement of the team goals. This processes derive its name from the jigsaw puzzle as this process involves in putting the parts of the assignment together to form a whole picture of the assignment which is similar to the jigsaw puzzle. The assignment is divided into parts and the class is also divided into the same number of groups as that of the assignment. Each of these group is given a different topic and allowed to learn about it. These groups are shuffled to form new groups consisting of members from each group.
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  • 28 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Smiley V. Citibank (South Dakota), N. A.
Smiley v. Citibank, 517 U.S. 735 (1996), is a U.S. Supreme Court decision upholding a regulation of the Comptroller of Currency which included credit card late fees and other penalties within the definition of interest and thus prevented individual states from limiting them when charged by nationally-chartered banks. Justice Antonin Scalia wrote for a unanimous court that the regulation was reasonable enough under the Court's own Chevron standard for the justices to defer to the Comptroller. The decision, which had begun as a class action in California, was seen as a victory for banks and credit-card issuers, who could mostly charge late fees as they pleased. For that same reason consumer advocates were displeased, warning that late fees could rise to previously unseen levels. They did, and one of the Citibank attorneys has expressed regret for his involvement.
  • 312
  • 28 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Early World Maps
The earliest known world maps date to classical antiquity, the oldest examples of the 6th to 5th centuries BCE still based on the flat Earth paradigm. World maps assuming a spherical Earth first appear in the Hellenistic period. The developments of Greek geography during this time, notably by Eratosthenes and Posidonius culminated in the Roman era, with Ptolemy's world map (2nd century CE), which would remain authoritative throughout the Middle Ages. Since Ptolemy, knowledge of the approximate size of the globe allowed cartographers to estimate the extent of their geographical knowledge, and to indicate parts of the globe known to exist but not yet explored as terra incognita. With the Age of Discovery, during the 15th to 18th centuries, world maps became increasingly accurate; exploration of Antarctica and the interior of Africa by western mapmakers was left to the 19th and early 20th century.
  • 7.9K
  • 28 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Aerial Bombardment and International Law
Air warfare must comply with laws and customs of war, including international humanitarian law by protecting the victims of the conflict and refraining from attacks on protected persons. These restraints on aerial warfare are covered by the general laws of war, because unlike war on land and at sea—which are specifically covered by rules such as the 1907 Hague Convention and Protocol I additional to the Geneva Conventions, which contain pertinent restrictions, prohibitions and guidelines—there are no treaties specific to aerial warfare. To be legal, aerial operations must comply with the principles of humanitarian law: military necessity, distinction, and proportionality: An attack or action must be intended to help in the military defeat of the enemy; it must be an attack on a military objective, and the harm caused to civilians or civilian property must be proportional and not excessive in relation to the concrete and direct military advantage anticipated.
  • 525
  • 28 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Health Dynamics Inventory
The Health Dynamics Inventory (HDI) is a 50 item self-report questionnaire developed to evaluate mental health functioning and change over time and treatment. The HDI was written to evaluate the three aspects of mental disorders as described in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM): "clinically significant behavioral or psychological syndrome or pattern...associated with present distress...or disability". This also corresponds to the phase model described by Howard and colleagues Accordingly, the HDI assesses (1) the experience of emotional or behavioral symptoms that define mental illness, such as dysphoria, worry, angry outbursts, low self-esteem, or excessive drinking, (2) the level of emotional distress related to these symptoms, and (3) the impairment or problems fulfilling the major roles of one's life. The HDI was developed for use with mental and behavioral health outpatient, day treatment, hospital, and chemical health programs for both children and adults. It has multiple applications for improving the mental health treatment of children and adults, including in primary care medicine and integrated care. It was designed to be responsive to treatment effects and has descriptive anchors on a 5 point scale to allow for discrimination of frequency and severity of symptom expression. The HDI was developed for ease of use for patients, researchers, clinicians, and clinics. It was designed to be easy to administer and to score, easy to complete, and to provide results that are easily understood and transformed into meaningful decisions, diagnoses and treatment plans. Most importantly, the HDI was designed to allow clear comparison between multiple administrations, demonstrating the degree of effectiveness of the services provided to individuals throughout their treatment, and to other changes of condition. This allows clinicians and patients to recognize their successes and failures, alert clinicians to high risk situations, target and modify treatment as necessary, and for clinics and clinic managers to track and monitor the process and progress of persons under their care.
  • 397
  • 28 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Positive and Negative Affect Schedule
The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) is a self-report questionnaire that consists of two 10-item scales to measure both positive and negative affect. Each item is rated on a 5-point scale of 1 (not at all) to 5 (very much). The measure has been used mainly as a research tool in group studies, but can be utilized within clinical and non-clinical populations as well. Shortened, elongated, and children's versions of the PANAS have been developed, taking approximately 5–10 minutes to complete. Clinical and non-clinical studies have found the PANAS to be a reliable and valid instrument in the assessment of positive and negative affect.
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