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Topic Review
Fungal Biodegradation of Polyurethanes
Polyurethanes (PURs) are versatile polymers used in a wide variety of fields, such as the medical, automotive, textile, thermal insulation, and coating industries as well as many everyday objects. Many PURs have applications that require a long service life, sometimes with exposure to aggressive conditions. They can undergo different types of physicochemical and biological degradation, but they are not compostable, and many of them constitute persistent waste in the environment. Although both bacteria and fungi can be involved in the degradation of PURs, fungi are often the main biodegradation agents.
  • 501
  • 07 Aug 2023
Topic Review
The Oral Bacteriome and COVID-19
Metagenomic analysis of the oral bacteriome of patients suffering from COVID-19 have revealed the abundance of cariogenic (tooth decay) and periodontopathic (periodontitis) bacteria. This indicates that changes in the diversity of the oral bacteriome can lead to COVID-19 complications. 
  • 499
  • 17 May 2023
Topic Review
miR-Based Treatments for Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome
Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) is characterized by lung inflammation and increased membrane permeability, which represents the leading cause of mortality in ICUs. Mechanical ventilation strategies are at the forefront of supportive approaches for ARDS. Recently, an increasing understanding of RNA biology, function, and regulation, as well as the success of RNA vaccines, has spurred enthusiasm for the emergence of novel RNA-based therapeutics. The most common types of RNA seen in development are silencing (si)RNAs, antisense oligonucleotide therapy (ASO), and messenger (m)RNAs that collectively account for 80% of the RNA therapeutics pipeline. These three RNA platforms are the most mature, with approved products and demonstrated commercial success. 
  • 497
  • 05 Mar 2024
Topic Review
Microbiota Gut–Liver Axis during HCV Chronic Infection
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) still represents one of the most important worldwide health care problems. Since 2011, direct-acting antiviral (DAA) drugs have increased the number of people who have achieved a sustained virological response (SVR). Even if the program to eradicate HCV by 2030 is still ongoing, the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has created a delay due to the reallocation of public health resources. HCV is characterized by high genetic variability and is responsible for hepatic and extra-hepatic diseases. Depending on the HCV genotype/subtype and comorbidities of patients, tailored treatment is necessary. 
  • 492
  • 29 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Relapsing Atopic Dermatitis and Microbial Restoration
Atopic Dermatitis (AD) skin is susceptible to Staphylococcus aureus (SA) infection, potentially exposing it to a plethora of toxins and virulent determinants, including Panton-Valentine leukocidin (PVL) (α-hemolysin (Hla) and phenol-soluble modulins (PSMs)), and superantigens. Depending on the degree of infection (superficial or invasive), clinical treatments may encompass permanganate (aq) and bleach solutions coupled with intravenous/oral antibiotics such as amoxicillin, vancomycin, doxycycline, clindamycin, daptomycin, telavancin, linezolid, or tigecycline. However, when the skin is significantly traumatized (sheathing of epidermal sections), an SA infection can rapidly ensue, impairing the immune system, and inducing local and systemic AD presentations in susceptible areas. Furthermore, when AD presents systemically, desensitization can be long (years) and intertwined with periods of relapse. In such circumstances, the identification of triggers (stress or infection) and severity of the flare need careful monitoring (preferably in real-time) so that tailored treatments targeting the underlying pathological mechanisms (SA toxins, elevated immunoglobulins, impaired healing) can be modified, permitting rapid resolution of symptoms.
  • 480
  • 10 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Bacterial Communities around Adventdalen Landfill Site in Svalbard
Ecosystems are often resilient enough to fully recover following a natural disturbance, or to transform into a new equilibrium favourable to the surrounding flora and fauna. However, at a local level, whether this transformation will be beneficial or not depends strongly on the level of disturbance and the available mechanisms for recovery. The Arctic, however, provides a potentially extreme environment for microbial growth and this is reflected in the microbial biodiversity, the in-situ growth rates, the biogeochemical cycling and its sensitivity to environmental change. 
  • 480
  • 23 Oct 2023
Topic Review
Cell Envelope Synthesis Enzymes
Life-threatening systemic fungal infections occur in immunocompromised patients at an alarming rate. Current antifungal therapies face challenges like drug resistance and patient toxicity, emphasizing the need for new treatments. Membrane-bound enzymes account for a large proportion of antifungal targets, especially ones that contribute to cell wall and cell membrane biosynthesis. Moreover, structural biology has led to a better understanding of the mechanisms by which these enzymes synthesize their products, as well as the mechanism of action for some antifungals. 
  • 471
  • 27 Feb 2024
Topic Review
Rare-Actinomycetes to the Rescue
The failure of sustainable and agricultural intensifications in saving the ecosystem/public health has caused a paradigm shift to microbiome resource engineering through sustainable approaches. As agricultural intensification systems prioritize synthetic input applications over environmental health, sustainable intensification fails to define the end point of intensification, giving room for the application of “intensification” over “sustainability” to suit farmers’ needs. The complexity of a cooperative microbiome and the uncontrollable nature of its numerous influencing parameters as well as the non-specificity associated with bioinoculant application, results in the direct utilization of agroactive compounds to obtain greater preventive efficiency.
  • 462
  • 26 Jan 2024
Topic Review
RNA and ssDNA Phages against Multi-Drug Resistant Bacteria
RNA and single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) phages make up an understudied subset of bacteriophages that have been rapidly expanding in the last decade thanks to advancements in metaviromics. Antibiotics play a crucial role in treating bacterial infections, but their overuse and misuse have led to the emergence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), resulting in reduced drug efficiency and persistent infections. Given the rapid evolution of AMR and the challenges of developing novel drugs, exploring alternative strategies becomes imperative. Phage therapy, utilizing phage-derived products and both natural and engineered phages for infection treatment, along with infection prevention through vaccines targeting antimicrobial-resistant pathogens, stands out as a promising frontier in the battle against AMR.
  • 461
  • 05 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Mosquito-Borne Arboviruses Occurrence and Distribution in Central Africa
Arboviruses represent a real public health problem globally and in the Central African subregion in particular, which represents a high-risk zone for the emergence and re-emergence of arbovirus outbreaks. 
  • 460
  • 29 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Non-Candida Yeasts and Dimorphic Fungi in Cetaceans
This encyclopedia entry addresses the overlooked presence of non-Candida yeasts in cetaceans, key to marine ecosystems yet threatened by human activity, climate change, and pollution. Highlighting the importance of cetaceans as indicators of ocean and human health, it examines the distribution, pathogenicity, and ecological impact of specific yeast species, including Cryptococcus spp. and Paracoccidioides spp. The entry explores the balance between yeast commensalism and pathogenicity, influenced by environmental stressors like pollution and climate alterations, and its effects on marine host health and ecosystem dynamics. The unique physiological and ecological aspects of cetaceans are considered, with a focus on potential effects on their behavior, reproduction, and survival. The entry identifies key research gaps and advocates for advanced molecular studies on the cetacean mycobiome, emphasizing the need for a One Health approach. It underscores the urgency of further research into non-Candida yeasts in cetaceans for marine conservation and public health.
  • 457
  • 22 Feb 2024
Topic Review
Colonization of Clostridioides difficile to Human Intestinal Cells
Clostridioides difficile is considered a nosocomial pathogen that flares up in patients exposed to antibiotic treatment. However, four out of ten patients diagnosed with C. difficile infection (CDI) acquired the infection from non-hospitalized individuals, many of whom have not been treated with antibiotics. Treatment of recurrent CDI (rCDI) with antibiotics, especially vancomycin (VAN) and metronidazole (MNZ), increases the risk of experiencing a relapse by as much as 70%. Fidaxomicin, on the other hand, proved more effective than VAN and MNZ by preventing the initial transcription of RNA toxin genes. Alternative forms of treatment include quorum quenching (QQ) that blocks toxin synthesis, binding of small anion molecules such as tolevamer to toxins, monoclonal antibodies, such as bezlotoxumab and actoxumab, bacteriophage therapy, probiotics, and fecal microbial transplants (FMTs).
  • 446
  • 07 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Sb and Sc, and Their Modes of Action
Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. boulardii (Sb) is currently receiving significant attention as a synthetic probiotic platform due to its ease of manipulation and inherent effectiveness in promoting digestive health.
  • 446
  • 19 Jan 2024
Topic Review
Proteomics of Toxigenic Corynebacteria
Within the genus Corynebacterium, six species are potential carriers of the tox gene, which encodes the highly potent diphtheria exotoxin: Corynebacterium diphtheriae, Corynebacterium belfantii, Corynebacterium rouxii, Corynebacterium ulcerans, Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis and Corynebacterium silvaticum. Based on their potential to infect different host species and cause either human infections, zoonotic diseases or infections of economically important animals, these bacteria are of high scientific and economic interest and different research groups have carried out proteome analyses. These showed that especially the combination of MS-based proteomics with bioinformatic tools helped significantly to elucidate the functional aspects of corynebacterial genomes and to handle the genome and proteome complexity.
  • 437
  • 20 Feb 2024
Topic Review
Microbial Therapy and Breast Cancer Management
Microorganisms play an indirect role in affecting the emergence, natural course, and/or severity of various cancers. The presence of a unique microbiome in breast tissue, previously unacknowledged, has gained recognition through research. Microbiome dissimilarities have been observed between healthy and cancerous breast tissue, implying that cancer may disturb the natural balance of the microbiome in this area. Interestingly, breast tumor tissue showed a decrease in total bacterial DNA, and an inverse relationship was observed between the bacterial DNA load and advanced cancer stages.
  • 423
  • 05 Feb 2024
Topic Review Peer Reviewed
Field Guide: Morphometric Visualization and Characterization of Selected Foodborne Pathogens Using Advanced Imaging Techniques
This paper aims to present the phenotypic characteristics, such as length, width, circular diameter, volume, surface area to cross-sectional area ratio, surface uniformity, and surface texture, of the foodborne pathogens Salmonella enterica serovar Agona, Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis, Listeria monocytogenes, and Campylobacter jejuni. It is a novel “field-guide” presentation of the observable morphological characteristics of these four species in the form of a Dichotomous Key. Phenotypic values of the pathogens were measured using a high-accuracy, nano-level-resolution 3D laser confocal scanning microscope. All samples were fixed with glutaraldehyde and stained with methylene blue, ensuring morphological preservation. The images of the pathogens were captured under various imaging modes, including 3D, laser, and transmission electron microscopy resolutions. Results show that these pathogens exhibit distinct morphological and surface properties, with Campylobacter jejuni showing unique features. The dichotomous key shows a simplified way of classifying selected foodborne pathogens from their morphometric properties. The morphometric measurements, in many instances first reported in the literature, and images provide a readily observable way to identify and classify microorganisms, allowing researchers to potentially study evolutionary relationships, assess species diversity, and understand how organisms interact with their environment, especially when genetic information is limited or difficult to obtain.
  • 365
  • 09 Apr 2025
Topic Review
Bioactive Antimicrobial Peptides from Food Proteins
Bioactive peptides (BAPs) derived from food proteins have been extensively studied for their health benefits, majorly exploring their potential use as nutraceuticals and functional food components. These peptides possess a range of beneficial properties, including antihypertensive, antioxidant, immunomodulatory, and antibacterial activities, and are naturally present within dietary protein sequences. To release food-grade antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), enzymatic protein hydrolysis or microbial fermentation, such as with lactic acid bacteria (LAB), can be employed. The activity of AMPs is influenced by various structural characteristics, including the amino acid composition, three-dimensional conformation, liquid charge, putative domains, and resulting hydrophobicity. BAPs can regulate gut microbiota by promoting the growth of beneficial bacteria or by directly inhibiting pathogenic microorganisms. LAB-promoted hydrolysis of dietary proteins occurs naturally in both the matrix and the gastrointestinal tract. However, several obstacles must be overcome before BAPs can replace antimicrobials in food production. These include the high manufacturing costs of current technologies, limited in vivo and matrix data, and the difficulties associated with standardization and commercial-scale production.
  • 331
  • 06 Mar 2025
Topic Review
Gene Regulation in the Context of Male Infertility
This study investigates the regulatory features of 26 genes linked to nonsyndromic male infertility using computational analysis. Researchers identified the number and placement of gene promoters, finding that most genes have between 1 and 6 promoters, primarily within 1 kb upstream of the transcription start site. Notably, 41% of promoters are located more than 500 bp upstream. While a common TATA box sequence is found across all genes, it is unusually positioned in the EFCAB9 gene. The C2H2 zinc finger transcription factor appears most frequently across gene promoters, while the bZIP family shows specific binding to the JUNB promoter. Additionally, two genes, NANOS1 and ZMYND15, may be less affected by DNA methylation due to high CpG content in their promoters.
  • 123
  • 24 Jun 2025
Topic Review
Methanogens
Methanogens are a distinct group of microorganisms belonging to the domain Archaea that produce methane as a metabolic by-product in strictly anaerobic environments. They play an essential role in global carbon cycling, serving as the terminal step in the degradation of organic matter where oxygen, nitrate, sulfate, or other terminal electron acceptors are absent. These microorganisms are found in a wide range of natural and artificial habitats, including wetlands, sediments, and animal digestive tracts, and are major biological sources of atmospheric methane.
  • 94
  • 05 Nov 2025
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