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Topic Review
The Basics of Neuroimmunology
Neuroimmunology is an interdisciplinary field that brings together knowledge from biology, immunology, chemistry, neurology, pathology, psychiatry, and virology to examine the intricate interrelations between the central nervous system (CNS) and immune system (IS), its interactions during various developmental stages, as well as maintaining homeostasis or responding to injuries. 
  • 624
  • 14 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Heterotypic Interactions in Neuroinflammation
Different cell populations in the nervous tissue establish numerous, heterotypic interactions and perform specific, frequently intersecting activities devoted to the maintenance of homeostasis. Microglia and astrocytes, respectively the immune and the “housekeeper” cells of nervous tissue, play a key role in neurodegenerative diseases. Alterations of tissue homeostasis trigger neuroinflammation, a collective dynamic response of glial cells. Reactive astrocytes and microglia express various functional phenotypes, ranging from anti-inflammatory to pro-inflammatory. Chronic neuroinflammation is characterized by a gradual shift of astroglial and microglial phenotypes from anti-inflammatory to pro-inflammatory, switching their activities from cytoprotective to cytotoxic. In this scenario, the different cell populations reciprocally modulate their phenotypes through intense, reverberating signaling. Current evidence suggests that heterotypic interactions are links in an intricate network of mutual influences and interdependencies connecting all cell types in the nervous system.
  • 623
  • 19 May 2021
Topic Review
Surgical Management of Synucleinopathies
Synucleinopathies represent a diverse set of pathologies with significant morbidity and mortality.
  • 623
  • 29 Feb 2024
Topic Review
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis and Serum Lipid Level Association
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurodegenerative disease with unknown etiology. Many metabolic alterations occur during ALS progress and can be used as a method of pre-diagnostic and early diagnosis. Dyslipidemia is one of the physiological changes observed in numerous ALS patients.
  • 622
  • 24 May 2023
Topic Review
Sphingosine-1-Phosphate Lyase in Neurodegeneration
Sphingosine-1-phosphate lyase (SPL) is a pyridoxal 5′-phosphate-dependent enzyme involved in the irreversible degradation of sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P)—a bioactive sphingolipid that modulates a broad range of biological processes (cell proliferation, migration, differentiation and survival; mitochondrial functioning; and gene expression).
  • 621
  • 17 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Clozapine for Treating Treatment-Resistant Schizophrenia
Clozapine is listed as one of the most effective antipsychotics and has been approved for treating treatment-resistant schizophrenia (TRS); however, several type A and B adverse reactions, including weight gain, metabolic complications, cardiotoxicity, convulsions, and discontinuation syndromes, exist. The critical mechanisms of clinical efficacy for schizophrenia, TRS, and adverse reactions of clozapine have not been elucidated. The GABA isomer L-β-aminoisobutyric acid (L-BAIBA), a protective myokine in the peripheral organs, was identified as a candidate novel transmission modulator in the central nervous system (CNS). L-BAIBA activates adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) signalling in both the peripheral organs and CNS. Activated AMPK signalling in peripheral organs is an established major target for treating insulin-resistant diabetes, whereas activated AMPK signalling in the hypothalamus contributes to the pathophysiology of weight gain and metabolic disturbances. Clozapine increases L-BAIBA synthesis in the hypothalamus. In addition, the various functions of L-BAIBA in the CNS have been elucidated, including as an activator of GABA-B and group-III metabotropic glutamate (III-mGlu) receptors. Considering the expressions of GABA-B and III-mGlu receptors (localised in the presynaptic regions), the activation of GABA-B and III-mGlu receptors can explain the distinct therapeutic advantages of clozapine in schizophrenia or TRS associated with N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor disturbance compared with other atypical antipsychotics via the inhibition of the persistent tonic hyperactivation of thalamocortical glutamatergic transmission in the prefrontal cortex. L-BAIBA has also been identified as a gliotransmitter, and a detailed exploration of the function of L-BAIBA in tripartite synaptic transmission can further elucidate the pathophysiology of effectiveness for treating TRS and/or specific adverse reactions of clozapine.
  • 621
  • 20 Sep 2023
Topic Review
MicroRNAs' Impact on Sleep-Related Epilepsy
MicroRNAs are a family of single-stranded, non-coding, endogenous regulatory molecules formed from double-stranded precursors. They are typically composed of 21–23 nucleotides, and their main role involves post-transcriptional downregulation of expression of numerous genes. Learning more about the role of microRNAs in the pathogenesis of sleep disorder epilepsy may result in its use as a biomarker in these disorders and application in therapy.
  • 620
  • 06 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Migraine Comorbidities
Migraine is a primary headache, with a high prevalence and morbidity among young adults, especially women, that significantly reduces the quality of life. Approximately 1 billion people worldwide suffer from migraine and this disorder remains the second leading cause of disability worldwide, after low back pain, despite considerable progress in diagnosis and treatment. The incidence of migraine attacks peaks between early and mid-adolescence, although attacks can occur at any age. 
  • 619
  • 30 Jan 2024
Topic Review
Post-Stroke Fatigue
Post-stroke emotional disorders encompass depression, anxiety, emotion control disorder, anger control disorder, and fatigue that occurs after a stroke. Post-stroke fatigue (PSF) is one of the most common emotional disorders, and the previous studies suggested that 16%–85% of stroke patients experience PSF.
  • 618
  • 02 Dec 2021
Topic Review
ADHD, Binge Eating Disorder and Borderline Personality Disorder
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by impulsiveness, inattention, restlessness, and hyperactivity. This classification is provided because onset occurs in early childhood before age 12 and is characterized by developmental deficits inconsistent with or excessive for developmental level or age.
  • 618
  • 25 Oct 2023
Topic Review
The Batroxobin, oxygEn, Conditioning, and cOOLing Treatments
Ischemic cerebrovascular disease (ICD), the most common neurological disease worldwide, can be classified based on the onset time (acute/chronic) and the type of cerebral blood vessel involved (artery or venous sinus). Classifications include acute ischemic stroke (AIS)/transient ischemic attack (TIA), chronic cerebral circulation insufficiency (CCCI), acute cerebral venous sinus thrombosis (CVST), and chronic cerebrospinal venous insufficiency (CCSVI). The pathogenesis of cerebral arterial ischemia may be correlated with cerebral venous ischemia through decreased cerebral perfusion. The core treatment goals for both arterial and venous ICDs include perfusion recovery, reduction of cerebral ischemic injury, and preservation of the neuronal integrity of the involved region as soon as possible. The neuroprotective effects of four novel potential ICD treatments with high translation rates, known as the BE COOL treatments (Batroxobin, oxygEn, Conditioning, and cOOLing), and subsequently analyzes how BE COOL treatments are used in clinical settings are discussed.
  • 617
  • 02 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Bio-Scaffolds as Carriers for Nerve Injury Repair
Central and peripheral nerve injuries can lead to permanent paralysis and organ dysfunction. In recent years, many cell and exosome implantation techniques have been developed in an attempt to restore function after nerve injury with promising but generally unsatisfactory clinical results. Clinical outcome may be enhanced by bio-scaffolds specifically fabricated to provide the appropriate three-dimensional (3D) conduit, growth-permissive substrate, and trophic factor support required for cell survival and regeneration. In rodents, these scaffolds have been shown to promote axonal regrowth and restore limb motor function following experimental spinal cord or sciatic nerve injury. 
  • 616
  • 09 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Parkinson’s Disease, SARS-CoV-2 and Frailty
Literature has long established the association between aging and frailty, with emerging evidence pointing to a relationship between frailty and SARS-CoV-2 contagion. The possible neurological consequences of SARS-CoV-2 infection, associated with physical and cognitive frailty, could lead to a worsening of Parkinson’s disease (PD) in infected patients or—more rarely—to an increase in the Parkinsonian symptomatology. A possible link between those clinical pictures could be identified in vitamin D deficiency, while the whole process would appear to be associated with alterations in the microbiota–intestine–brain axis that fall within the α-Synuclein Origin site and Connectome (SOC) model, and allow for the identification of a body-first PD and a brain-first PD. The model of care for this condition must consider intrinsic and extrinsic variables so that care by a multidisciplinary team can be successfully predicted. 
  • 615
  • 14 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Gender and Neurosteroids
Neurosteroids are synthesized de novo in the nervous system; they mainly moderate neuronal excitability, and reach target cells via the extracellular pathway. The synthesis of neurosteroids occurs in peripheral tissues such as gonads tissues, liver, and skin; then, because of their high lipophilia, they cross the blood–brain barrier and are stored in the brain structure. Neurosteroidogenesis occurs in brain regions such as the cortex, hippocampus, and amygdala by enzymes necessary for the in situ synthesis of progesterone from cholesterol. Neurosteroids could be considered the main players in both sexual steroid-induced hippocampal synaptic plasticity and normal transmission in the hippocampus.
  • 615
  • 30 May 2023
Topic Review
Mapping the Glymphatic Pathway Using Imaging
The glymphatic system is a recently discovered waste clearance system that has been associated with many diseases including Alzheimer’s disease, hemorrhage, and neurotrauma. Thus, it opens an array of research opportunities to improve and understand their prognoses. Currently, ex vivo fluorescence microscopy of brain slices, MRI, and macroscopic cortical imaging are the most common ways of determining glymphatic system function.
  • 615
  • 28 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Subependymal Giant Cell Astrocytomas in Tuberous Sclerosis Complex
Tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) is an autosomal-dominant disorder caused by mutations inactivating TSC1 or TSC2 genes and characterized by the presence of tumors involving many organs, including the brain, heart, kidneys, and skin. Subependymal giant cell astrocytoma (SEGA) is a slow-growing brain tumor almost exclusively associated with TSC.
  • 613
  • 03 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Diabetic Choroidopathy in the Pathogenesis of Diabetic Retinopathy
Diabetic microangiopathy is one of the main responsible factors of multiorgan complications in diabetes, including nephropathy, diabetic retinopathy (DR), cardiovascular disease, and neuropathy. The retinal vascular system, neurons, and glia constitute the neurovascular unit (NVU), where these structures present a close interdependency that promotes autoregulation, maintains the blood–retinal barrier (BRB), and provides structural support. Diabetes affects the NVU, leading to retinal dysfunction and microvascular damage. An early loss of neurovascular coupling, neurodegeneration, glial alteration, and neuroinflammation can occur even before the microvascular alterations become appreciable. Although the retinal microvasculopathy in DR is preponderant and has captured most of the attention in clinical studies, the choroidal vascular layer changes are not fully elucidated. The choroidal vascular bed nourishes the outer retinal layers; the foveola, in particular, relies solely on the choroid. 
  • 610
  • 29 Jun 2023
Topic Review
Circular RNAs and Multiple Sclerosis
Multiple sclerosis (MS), a condition characterised by demyelination and axonal damage in the central nervous system, is due to autoreactive immune cells that recognise myelin antigens. Alteration of the immune balance can promote the onset of immune deficiencies, loss of immunosurveillance, and/or development of autoimmune disorders such as MS. Numerous enzymes, transcription factors, signal transducers, and membrane proteins contribute to the control of immune system activity. The “transcriptional machine” of eukaryotic cells is a complex system composed not only of mRNA but also of non-coding elements grouped together in the set of non-coding RNAs. ncRNAs play a crucial role in numerous cellular functions, gene expression, and the pathogenesis of many immune disorders.
  • 610
  • 27 Nov 2023
Topic Review
The Anti-Epileptic Effects of Carbenoxolone
Gap junctions (GJs) are intercellular junctions that allow the direct transfer of ions and small molecules between neighboring cells, and GJs between astrocytes play an important role in the development of various pathologies of the brain, including regulation of the pathological neuronal synchronization underlying epileptic seizures. Recently, we found that a pathological change is observed in astrocytes during the ictal and interictal phases of 4-aminopyridin (4-AP)-elicited epileptic activity in vitro, which was correlated with neuronal synchronization and extracellular epileptic electrical activity. This finding raises the question: Does this signal depend on GJs between astrocytes?
  • 609
  • 25 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Multipotent Stem Cells for Spinal Cord Injury
Spinal Cord Injury (SCI) is a common neurological disorder with devastating psychical and psychosocial sequelae. The majority of patients after SCI suffer from permanent disability caused by motor dysfunction, impaired sensation, neuropathic pain, spasticity as well as urinary complications, and a small number of patients experience a complete recovery. Current standard treatment modalities of the SCI aim to prevent secondary injury and provide limited recovery of lost neurological functions. Stem Cell Therapy (SCT) represents an emerging treatment approach using the differentiation, paracrine, and self-renewal capabilities of stem cells to regenerate the injured spinal cord. Multipotent stem cells including mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), neural stem cells (NSCs), and hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) represent the most investigated types of stem cells for the treatment of SCI in preclinical and clinical studies. The microenvironment of SCI has a significant impact on the survival, proliferation, and differentiation of transplanted stem cells.
  • 609
  • 18 Jan 2023
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