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Topic Review
Stereogram of the Living Heart
The concept of binocular stereopsis is that retinal images of the left and right eyes differ because of pupil distance. These two two-dimensional scenes are reproduced as a single image in the visual cortex of the occipital lobe of the brain, recovering the three-dimensional world with depth. A set of these two-dimensional images is referred to as a “stereogram,” which has multiple types.
  • 636
  • 06 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Dual-Energy Heart CT
Dual-energy CT (DECT) scanners acquire two sets of data with different energy levels for each voxel and create two sets of images independently for each energy, similarly to single-energy CT (SECT).
  • 633
  • 24 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Clinical Molecular Imaging for Atherosclerotic Plaque
Atherosclerosis is a well-known disease leading to cardiovascular events, including myocardial infarction and ischemic stroke. These conditions lead to a high mortality rate, which explains the interest in their prevention, early detection, and treatment. Molecular imaging is able to shed light on the basic pathophysiological processes, such as inflammation, that cause the progression and instability of plaque.
  • 629
  • 15 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Portal Vein Embolization of Indications and Contraindications
Preoperative portal vein embolization (PVE) via the purposeful occlusion of select portal vein branches to promote contralateral hepatic lobar hypertrophy has become the accepted standard for liver regeneration. Advances in embolic materials, selection of treatment approaches, and PVE with hepatic venous deprivation or concurrent transcatheter arterial embolization/radioembolization are all active areas of research. The primary indication for pre-operative PVE is centered on the inability of the pre-embolization future liver remnant (FLR) to support whole liver function post-resection. Contraindications to PVE are severe portal hypertension, uncontrollable intrahepatic portal-to-hepatic vein shunts, tumor thrombus in the portal vein, and occlusion of the portal vein in the FLR.
  • 627
  • 14 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Organ-Preserving Radiation Therapy in Gastric Marginal Zone Lymphoma
Gastric marginal zone lymphoma (MZL) of the stomach is a rare cancer type, often primarily treated with oral proton pump inhibitors, especially in Helicobacter pylori (Hp)-positive cases. However, the prevalence of Hp-unrelated gastric MZL has increased over the last two decades and 70-80% of Hp-negative gastric MZL are antibiotic-unresponsive. Radiation treatment can provide excellent local control in localized antibiotic-refractory gastric MZL.
  • 625
  • 21 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Biological Vectors in Targeted Radionuclide Therapy
The precise delivery of cytotoxic radiation to cancer cells through the combination of a specific targeting vector with a radionuclide for targeted radionuclide therapy (TRT) has proven valuable for cancer care. TRT is increasingly being considered a relevant treatment method in fighting micro-metastases in the case of relapsed and disseminated disease. While antibodies were the first vectors applied in TRT, increasing research data has cited antibody fragments and peptides with superior properties and thus a growing interest in application.
  • 625
  • 15 May 2023
Topic Review
The Diagnostic Deceiver: Radiological Pictorial Review of Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis (TB) is a bacterial infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It is a public health problem worldwide and one of the leading causes of mortality. Clinical manifestations and routine laboratory tests have limitations in directing physicians to diagnose TB. Medical imaging examinations play an essential role in detecting tissue abnormalities and suspecting diagnosis of TB. Radiologists and Physicians should be familiar with the radiological manifestations of TB to contribute to the early suspicion and diagnosis. This entry illustrates the common radiological patterns of pulmonary and extrapulmonary TB.
  • 622
  • 28 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Combination Therapy of Prostate/Breast Cancer
Combinations of radionuclide therapy (RT) and targeted radionuclide therapy (TRT) with other therapies with distinct mechanisms of action represent a promising strategy. As for prostate cancer and breast cancer, the two most prevalent cancer types worldwide, several combination-based therapies have been evaluated. 
  • 621
  • 31 May 2021
Topic Review
Role of Functional MRI in Liver SBRT
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is becoming increasingly important in the planning and delivery of radiation therapy of liver cancers. While most commonly utilised for anatomical detail, the utility of functional MRI for the development of personalised treatment approaches is an emerging area of research. 
  • 621
  • 21 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Molecular Imaging of Inflammatory Disease
Inflammatory diseases include a wide variety of highly prevalent conditions with high mortality rates in severe cases ranging from cardiovascular disease, to rheumatoid arthritis, to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, to graft vs. host disease, to a number of gastrointestinal disorders. Many diseases that are not considered inflammatory per se are associated with varying levels of inflammation. Imaging of the immune system and inflammatory response is of interest as it can give insight into disease progression and severity. Clinical imaging technologies such as computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are traditionally limited to the visualization of anatomical information; then, the presence or absence of an inflammatory state must be inferred from the structural abnormalities.
  • 615
  • 06 Apr 2021
Topic Review
MR Neuroimaging in Pediatric Inborn Errors of Metabolism
Inborn errors of metabolism (IEM) are a group of disorders due to functional defects in one or more metabolic pathways that can cause considerable morbidity and death if not diagnosed early.  Prompt diagnosis is important to guide therapeutic measures and reduce or prevent morbidity and death.  Neuroimaging plays an important role in diagnosis and treatment monitoring. Many IEMs present in the neonatal or early infantile period. Newborn metabolic screens do not capture all IEMs, both false negatives and false positive results can occur, and genetic testing may not always detect pathogenic mutations. Imaging is sometimes performed before the newborn screen results are available, and when positive and correctly interpreted, provides a chance for early intervention.  
  • 615
  • 20 May 2022
Topic Review
Anatomy and General Technique of Hemorrhoidal Embolization
Hemorrhoids are blood cushions located into the anus and lower rectum, acknowledged as a common cause of bleeding, which can reduce the quality of life. The development of minimally invasive techniques such as endovascular embolization of superior rectal artery, "Emborrhoid technique", is an effective treatment, with no pain or ischemic complications, and allows quick patient recovery. 
  • 613
  • 22 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Peptide Receptor Radionuclide Therapy
The PRRT (Peptide Receptor Radionuclide Therapy) is a promising modality treatment for patients with inoperable or metastatic neuroendocrine tumors (NETs). Progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS) of these patients are favorably comparable with standard therapies. The protagonist in this type of therapy is a somatostatin-modified peptide fragment ([Tyr3] octreotide), equipped with a specific chelating system (DOTA) capable of creating a stable bond with β-emitting radionuclides, such as yttrium-90 and lutetium-177.
  • 609
  • 04 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Laparoscopy in Low-Income Countries
Laparoscopy is an expensive procedure to adopt as it requires new equipment and specialized trained health workers. However, it could reduce post-operative costs and complications, especially in terms of infections. It is crucial to increase its accessibility, acceptability, and quality particularly in LMICs, especially during this COVID-19 era when the reduction of patient hospitalization is essential.
  • 587
  • 08 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Artificial Intelligence Methods for Spinal Metastasis Imaging
Spinal metastasis is the most common malignant disease of the spine, and its early diagnosis and treatment is important to prevent complications and improve quality of life. The main clinical applications of AI techniques include image processing, diagnosis, decision support, treatment assistance and prognostic outcomes. In the realm of spinal oncology, artificial intelligence technologies have achieved relatively good performance and hold immense potential to aid clinicians, including enhancing work efficiency and reducing adverse events. 
  • 585
  • 29 Sep 2022
Topic Review
2-[18F]FDG PET/CT
PET (positron emission tomography) is a noninvasive functional imaging technique based on the detection of photons resulting from the annihilation of positrons emitted by a radioactive substance known as radiotracer or radiopharmaceutical. PET equipments usually incorporate a computed tomography scanner (PET/CT) in order to obtain hybrid functional-anatomical images. Different radiotracers are used to study different physiologic processes, such as blood flow, bone turnover or expression of certain cell receptors. The most common radiotracer used in clinical practice is 2-deoxy-2-[18F]fluoro-d-glucose (2-[18F]FDG), a glucose analogue binded to a radioactive isotope of fluor that informs about glucose metabolism in the body. As cancer cells have high energy requirements (and, therefore, high glucose consumption), this radiotracer is mostly used to evaluate oncologic processes (disease extension, response to treatment, etc.). However, some types of cancer have low 2-[18F]FDG uptake (e.g., well-differentiated or slow-growing neoplasms), and others can have a variable uptake due to the action of certain enzymes in the metabolic route of glucose (e.g., hepatocellular carcinoma).  
  • 581
  • 23 Jun 2021
Topic Review
NODDI for Multiple Sclerosis Imaging
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is characterised by widespread damage of the central nervous system that includes alterations in normal-appearing white matter (NAWM) and demyelinating white matter (WM) lesions. Neurite orientation dispersion and density imaging (NODDI) has been proposed to provide a precise characterisation of WM microstructures. NODDI maps can be calculated for the Neurite Density Index (NDI) and Orientation Dispersion Index (ODI), which estimate orientation dispersion and neurite density. Although NODDI has not been widely applied in MS, this technique is promising in investigating the complexity of MS pathology, as it is more specific than diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) in capturing microstructural alterations. 
  • 581
  • 28 Sep 2021
Topic Review
FDG-PET/CT in the Monitoring of Lymphoma Immunotherapy Response
Cancer immunotherapy is a type of cancer treatment that uses the immune system to fight cancer cells. Some of these treatments stimulate the immune system, while others prime the immune system to identify better and target cancer cells. In parallel with the implementation of cancer immunotherapy, therapy-specific FDG PET/CT response criteria were explicitly designed specifically for that purpose. FDG PET/CT plays a key role in the newly developed response criteria, and several FDG PET/CT-based criteria have been proposed to address all patterns of response to therapy, including indeterminate response, pseudoprogression, and hyperprogression using several metrics, such as SUV, MTV, and TLG. This research aims to discuss the effects and side effects of cancer immunotherapy and to correlate this with the proposed criteria and relevant patterns of FDG PET/CT in lymphoma immunotherapy as applicable. Additionally, the latest updates and future prospects will be explored.
  • 576
  • 24 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Artificial Intelligence in Interstitial Lung Disease Diagnosis
Diffuse lung disorders (DLDs) and interstitial lung diseases (ILDs) are pathological conditions affecting the lung parenchyma and interstitial network. There are approximately 200 different entities within this category. Radiologists play an increasingly important role in diagnosing and monitoring ILDs, as they can provide non-invasive, rapid, and repeatable assessments using high-resolution computed tomography (HRCT). HRCT offers a detailed view of the lung parenchyma, resembling a low-magnification anatomical preparation from a histological perspective. The intrinsic contrast provided by air in HRCT enables the identification of even the subtlest morphological changes in the lung tissue. By interpreting the findings observed on HRCT, radiologists can make a differential diagnosis and provide a pattern diagnosis in collaboration with the clinical and functional data. The use of quantitative software and artificial intelligence (AI) further enhances the analysis of ILDs, providing an objective and comprehensive evaluation.
  • 576
  • 14 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Pediatric NAFLD Diagnosis and Staging
The increased prevalence of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) requires special attention in pediatric patients, as it manifests in them in a more severe and progressive way compared to adults. The implementation of the appropriate therapeutic interventions is determinant of the attempts to treat it. For that purpose, early diagnosis and staging of the disease is essential.
  • 574
  • 17 Jun 2021
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