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Topic Review
Application of Graphene in Electronic Devices
Graphene achieved a peerless level among nanomaterials in terms of its application in electronic devices, owing to its fascinating and novel properties. Its large surface area and high electrical conductivity combine to create high-power batteries. In addition, because of its high optical transmittance, low sheet resistance, and the possibility of transferring it onto plastic substrates, graphene is also employed as a replacement for indium tin oxide (ITO) in making electrodes for touch screens. Moreover, it was observed that graphene enhances the performance of transparent flexible electronic modules due to its higher mobility, minimal light absorbance, and superior mechanical properties. Graphene is even considered a potential substitute for the post-Si electronics era, where a high-performance graphene-based field-effect transistor (GFET) can be fabricated to detect the lethal SARS-CoV-2. Hence, graphene incorporation in electronic devices can facilitate immense device structure/performance advancements.
  • 2.9K
  • 18 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Bayonetta
Bayonetta is an action hack and slash video game developed by PlatinumGames and published by Sega. The game was originally released for Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 in Japan in October 2009, and in North America and Europe in January 2010. The game was later released on the Wii U alongside its sequel, Bayonetta 2, releasing in September 2014 in Japan and worldwide the following month - the two games were later released worldwide on the Nintendo Switch in February 2018. An enhanced port for Windows was released in April 2017 with 4K support. A remastered version of Bayonetta as well as another PlatinumGames title, Vanquish, was released for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One on February 18, 2020, as part of a compilation to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the game. Bayonetta takes place in Vigrid, a fictional city in Europe. The game stars the eponymous character, a witch who is capable of shapeshifting and using various firearms. She possesses magical attacks, and she can use her hair to summon demons to dispatch her foes. It features a rating system, which gives players a grade based on their performance, and a combat system that is similar to the Devil May Cry series. Development of the game was started in January 2007, with Hideki Kamiya being the game's director. According to Kamiya, the game was completely original, though he drew some inspirations from Scandinavian mythology, and played Devil May Cry 4 for reference. The game's theme is "sexiness" and "partial nudity", and that the characters were designed to be "fashionable". Kamiya and artist Mari Shimazaki spent more than a year to create Bayonetta's design. Several demos were released for the game prior to its launch. Bayonetta was the third project released by PlatinumGames, which was founded by former Clover Studio employees. Upon release, the game received generally positive reviews. The game was praised for its combat, presentation and soundtrack, but drew criticism for its story and quick time events. Bayonetta was nominated for and won several end-of-the-year accolades, and had sold over a million units worldwide by 2010. An anime film adaptation of the game by Gonzo, titled Bayonetta: Bloody Fate, was released in Japan in November 2013. A third game, Bayonetta 3, is in development for the Switch.
  • 2.9K
  • 22 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Nucleic Acid
Nucleic acids are the biopolymers, or small biomolecules, essential to all known forms of life. The term nucleic acid is the overall name for DNA and RNA. They are composed of nucleotides, which are the monomers made of three components: a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base. If the sugar is a compound ribose, the polymer is RNA (ribonucleic acid); if the sugar is derived from ribose as deoxyribose, the polymer is DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). Nucleic acids are the most important of all biomolecules. They are found in abundance in all living things, where they function to create and encode and then store information in the nucleus of every living cell of every life-form organism on Earth. In turn, they function to transmit and express that information inside and outside the cell nucleus—to the interior operations of the cell and ultimately to the next generation of each living organism. The encoded information is contained and conveyed via the nucleic acid sequence, which provides the 'ladder-step' ordering of nucleotides within the molecules of RNA and DNA. Strings of nucleotides are bonded to form helical backbones—typically, one for RNA, two for DNA—and assembled into chains of base-pairs selected from the five primary, or canonical, nucleobases, which are: adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine, and uracil; note, thymine occurs only in DNA and uracil only in RNA. Using amino acids and the process known as protein synthesis, the specific sequencing in DNA of these nucleobase-pairs enables storing and transmitting coded instructions as genes. In RNA, base-pair sequencing provides for manufacturing new proteins that determine the frames and parts and most chemical processes of all life forms.
  • 2.9K
  • 28 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Gas/Oil-Relative Permeabilities
Thermal recovery processes for heavy oil exploitation involve three-phase flow at elevated temperatures. The mathematical modeling of such processes necessitates the account of changes in the rock–fluid system’s flow behavior as the temperature rises. To this end, numerous studies on effects of the temperature on relative permeabilities have been reported in the literature. Compared to studies on the temperature effects on oil/water-relative permeabilities, studies (and hence, data) on gas/oil-relative permeabilities are limited. However, the role of temperature on both gas/oil and oil/water-relative permeabilities has been a topic of much discussion, contradiction and debate. The jury is still out, without a consensus, with several contradictory hypotheses, even for the limited number of studies on gas/oil-relative permeabilities. This study presents a critical analysis of studies on gas/oil-relative permeabilities as reported in the literature, and puts forward an undeniable argument that the temperature does indeed impact gas/oil-relative permeabilities and the other fluid–fluid properties contributing to flow in the reservoir, particularly in a thermal recovery process. It further concludes that such thermal effects on relative permeabilities must be accounted for, properly and adequately, in reservoir simulation studies using numerical models. The paper presents a review of most cited studies since the 1940s and identifies the possible primary causes that contribute to contradictory results among them, such as differences in experimental methodologies, experimental difficulties in flow data acquisition, impact of flow instabilities during flooding, and the differences in the specific impact of temperature on different rock–fluid systems. We first examined the experimental techniques used in measurements of oil/gas-relative permeabilities and identified the challenges involved in obtaining reliable results. Then, the effect of temperature on other rock–fluid properties that may affect the relative permeability was examined. Finally, we assessed the effect of temperature on parameters that characterized the two-phase oil/gas-relative permeability data, including the irreducible water saturation, residual oil saturation and critical gas saturation. Through this critical review of the existing literature on the effect of temperature on gas/oil-relative permeabilities, we conclude that it is an important area that suffers profoundly from a lack of a comprehensive understanding of the degree and extent of how the temperature affects relative permeabilities in thermal recovery processes, and therefore, it is an area that needs further focused research to address various contradictory hypotheses and to describe the flow in the reservoir more reliably.
  • 2.9K
  • 14 Jul 2020
Topic Review
Bacterial Nanocellulose
Bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) is a biomaterial with a growing interest in the field of nanocomposites and sustainable materials. It is produced through fermentative processes by several species of bacteria as extracellular secretion. BNC looks like a highly pure and flexible 3D porous network suitable for various applications including biodegradable materials, reinforcing agents, packaging films, transpiring membranes, and medical devices. Among the many applications, the use of BNC functionalized with organic and inorganic groups has found wide use as a catalyst in chemical transformations.
  • 2.9K
  • 25 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Photovoltaic Solar Cells
A photovoltaic (PV) cell is the essential unit of a solar energy generation system in which sunlight is promptly converted to electrical energy. The solar cell is a p-n junction device. n-type refers to the negatively charged electrons donated by donor impurity atoms and p-type refers to the positively charged holes created by acceptor impurity atoms
  • 2.9K
  • 15 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Range Extender (Vehicle)
A range extender vehicle is a battery electric vehicle that includes an auxiliary power unit (APU) known as a 'range extender'. The range extender drives an electric generator which charges a battery which supplies the vehicle's electric motor with electricity. This arrangement is known as a series hybrid drivetrain. The most commonly used range extenders are internal combustion engines, but fuel-cells or other engine types can be used. Range extender vehicles are also referred to as extended-range electric vehicles (EREV), range-extended electric vehicles (REEV), and range-extended battery-electric vehicle (BEVx) by the California Air Resources Board (CARB). The key function of the range extender is to increase the vehicle's range. Range autonomy is one of the main barriers for the commercial success of electric vehicles, and extending the vehicle's range when the battery is depleted helps alleviate range anxiety. A range extending vehicle design can also reduce the consumption of the range extending fuel (such as gasoline) by using the primary fuel (such as battery power), while still maintaining the driving range of a single fuel vehicle powered by a range extending fuel such as gasoline. The range extending fuel is generally considered to be less environmentally and economically friendly to use than the primary fuel source, so the vehicle control system gives preference to using the primary fuel if it's available. However, due to range limitations with the primary fuel source, the range extending fuel allows the vehicle to get many of the cost and environmental benefits of the primary fuel, while maintaining the full driving range of the range extending fuel source. For example, in the Chevy Volt, battery power from the electric grid can be cheaper and more environmentally sustainable than burning gasoline (depending on the electric generation source), but due to the trade offs between the range of a pure electric vehicle and its battery size, adding the range extending gasoline is considered by many to be good compromise to give the Chevy Volt a significantly greater driving range. How many benefits are derived from using the primary fuel however depend on how the vehicles are driven. For example, a first generation Chevy Volt will operate 100% on battery power from the electric grid for the first 60 km (37 miles), while the second generation Volt will operate on 100% battery power for the first 85 km (53 miles) when fully recharged between trips. However, if the same Chevy Volt is driven for hundreds of miles a day it will require significant gasoline as the battery will be quickly depleted. Using the gasoline engine to generate power for the motors, the economy ratings are 6.4 L/100 km (37 mpg‑US) and 5.6 L/100 km (42 mpg‑US) for the different generation models. Therefore, it is critical to understand the driving patterns of the average commuter to fully understand the impact these range extending vehicles will have in the real world. Many range extender vehicles, including the Chevrolet Volt and the BMW i3, are able to charge their batteries from the grid as well as from the range extender, and therefore are a type of plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV). When a range extender uses conventional fuels they can re-fuel at regular fuel stations, which provides them with a similar driving range to conventional automobiles. As an REEV is only propelled by the electric motor it can do away with the weight and cost associated with the gearbox transmission system typically used in internal combustion engine cars. Further, as the range extender does not need to increase or decrease output in line with the power needs of the vehicle (this task is handled by the electric motor) the range extender can be sized to satisfy the vehicle's average power requirement rather than its peak power requirement (such as when accelerating). The range extender can also operate much closer to its most efficient rotational speed. These design features allow an REEV to convert fossil fuel energy to electric power and vehicle motion very efficiently.
  • 2.9K
  • 28 Oct 2022
Topic Review
T-Cell Receptor Repertoire Sequencing and Its Applications
The immune system is a dynamic feature of each individual and a footprint of our unique internal and external exposures. Indeed, the type and level of exposure to physical and biological agents shape the development and behavior of this complex and diffuse system. Many pathological conditions depend on how our immune system responds or does not respond to a pathogen or a disease or on how the regulation of immunity is altered by the disease itself. T-cells are important players in adaptive immunity and, together with B-cells, define specificity and monitor the internal and external signals that our organism perceives through its specific receptors, TCRs and BCRs, respectively. Today, high-throughput sequencing (HTS) applied to the TCR repertoire has opened a window of opportunity to disclose T-cell repertoire development and behavior down to the clonal level. Although TCR repertoire sequencing is easily accessible today, it is important to deeply understand the available technologies for choosing the best fit for the specific experimental needs and questions. Here, an updated overview of TCR repertoire sequencing strategies, providers and applications to infectious diseases and cancer to guide researchers’ choice through the multitude of available options is provided. The possibility of extending the TCR repertoire to HLA characterization will be of pivotal importance in the near future to understand how specific HLA genes shape T-cell responses in different pathological contexts and will add a level of comprehension that was unthinkable just a few years ago.
  • 2.9K
  • 24 Aug 2022
Topic Review
E-Cigarette Impact on Reproductive Health
Electronic cigarettes (e-cigarettes) are often considered a “safe substitute” for conventional cigarette cessation. The composition of the fluid is not always clearly defined and shows a large variation within brands and manufacturers. More than 80 compounds were detected in liquids and aerosols. E-cigarettes contain nicotine, and the addition of flavorings increases the toxicity of e-cigarette vapour in a significant manner. The heat generated by the e-cigarette leads to the oxidation and decomposition of its components, eventually forming harmful constituents in the inhaled vapour. The effects of these toxicants on male and female reproduction are well established in conventional cigarette smokers. 
  • 2.9K
  • 27 Mar 2023
Topic Review
Ultra-Low-Frequency Oscillation
One of the prominent problems faced with hydro-dominant power system is ultra-low-frequency oscillation (ULFO) with a frequency deviation of 0.1 Hz lower, which is caused by the negative damping of hydro generators. ULFO might lead to an oscillation of all generators with the same oscillation frequency, restricting consumption of hydropower renewable energy.
  • 2.9K
  • 27 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Metamaterials
Metamaterials are amongst the advanced materials made up initially with metal structures. However, there is a huge ongoing work on dielectric metasurfaces and metamaterials with the aim of replacing metal structures with dielectric ones in order to reduce the electromagnetic losses.
  • 2.9K
  • 31 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Impact of Tritium on Living Organisms
Tritium is a byproduct of many radiochemical reactions in the nuclear industry, and its effects on aquatic organisms, particularly low-dose effects, deserve special attention. The low-dose effects of tritium on aquatic microbiota have been intensively studied using luminous marine bacteria as model microorganisms. Low-dose physiological activation has been demonstrated and explained by the signaling role of reactive oxygen species through the “bystander effect” in bacterial suspensions. The activation of microbial functions in natural reservoirs by low tritium concentrations can cause unpredictable changes in food chains and imbalances in the natural equilibrium. The incorporation of tritium from the free form into organically bound compounds mainly occurs in the dark and at a temperature of 25 °C. When tritium is ingested by marine animals, up to 56% of tritium is accumulated in the muscle tissue and up to 36% in the liver. About 50% of tritium in the liver is bound in non-exchangeable forms. Human ingestion of water and food products contaminated with background levels of tritium does not significantly contribute to the total dose load on the human body. 
  • 2.9K
  • 22 Apr 2022
Topic Review Peer Reviewed
Artificial Intelligence in Special Education
This entry examines the growing role of artificial intelligence (AI) in special education. The authors discuss applications of AI in the field, including its uses for personalized learning, adaptive technologies, teacher support, and AI’s potential to address issues related to student accessibility and engagement. The entry draws on recent syntheses of literature, highlighting studies that reveal AI’s capacity to improve educational outcomes for students with disabilities, mitigate teacher workload, and foster inclusion. Despite these promising developments, the authors address ethical considerations, potential biases, and privacy concerns surrounding the use of AI, as well as the need for high-quality research that validates AI’s effectiveness in special education. The authors conclude that while AI can offer substantial support, it should be integrated thoughtfully, guided by empirical research, and accompanied by skilled professional oversight to ensure that it truly benefits students with disabilities.
  • 2.9K
  • 15 Jan 2025
Topic Review
Distributed Element Circuit
Distributed element circuits are electrical circuits composed of lengths of transmission lines or other distributed components. These circuits perform the same functions as conventional circuits composed of passive components such as capacitors, inductors, and transformers. They are used mostly at microwave frequencies where conventional components are difficult or impossible to implement. A major advantage of distributed element circuits is that they can be produced cheaply as a printed circuit board for consumer products such as satellite television. They are also made in coaxial and waveguide formats for applications such as radar, satellite communication, and microwave links. A phenomenon that is much used in distributed element circuits is that a length of transmission line can be made to behave as a resonator. Distributed element components that do this include stubs, coupled lines, and cascaded lines. Circuits built from these components include filters, power dividers, directional couplers, and circulators. Distributed element circuits were investigated in the 1920s and 1930s but did not become important until World War II when they were used in radar. After the war their use was at first limited to military, space, and broadcasting infrastructure use but improvements in materials science in the field soon led to wider applications.
  • 2.9K
  • 17 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Kidney Failure after Liver Transplantation
One-third of patients with cirrhosis present kidney failure (AKI and CKD). It has multifactorial causes and a harmful effect on morbidity and mortality before and after liver transplantation. Kidney function does not improve in all patients after liver transplantation, and liver transplant recipients are at a high risk of developing chronic kidney disease. The causes of renal dysfunction can be divided into three groups: pre-operative, perioperative and post-operative factors.
  • 2.9K
  • 22 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Recovery of Palladium from the Spent Automobile Catalysts
The spent automobile catalysts (SAC) is the major secondary source of palladium and the production of SAC is increasing rapidly over years. The price of palladium keeps rising over the years, which demonstrates its preciousness and urgent industrial demand. Recovering palladium from the spent automobile catalysts benefits a lot from economic and environmental protection aspects.  Hydrometallurgical methods such as chloride leaching with oxidants possess a high selectivity of palladium and low consumption of energy, and are cost-effective and flexible for different volume feeds compared with pyrometallurgical methods. The recovery ratios of palladium and other platinum-group metals should be the focus of competition since their prices have been rapidly increased over the years, and hence more efficient extractants with high selectivity of palladium even in the complexed leachate should be proposed in the future. 
  • 2.9K
  • 12 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Orthodiagonal Quadrilateral
In Euclidean geometry, an orthodiagonal quadrilateral is a quadrilateral in which the diagonals cross at right angles. In other words, it is a four-sided figure in which the line segments between non-adjacent vertices are orthogonal (perpendicular) to each other.
  • 2.9K
  • 19 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Panama Papers (Europe)
The Panama Papers are 11.5 million leaked documents that detail financial and attorney–client information for more than 214,488 offshore entities. The documents, some dating back to the 1970s, were created by, and taken from, Panamanian law firm and corporate service provider Mossack Fonseca, and were leaked in 2015 by an anonymous source. This page details related allegations, reactions, and investigations, in Europe.
  • 2.9K
  • 04 Nov 2022
Topic Review
List of Wartime Cross-Dressers
Many people have engaged in cross-dressing during wartime under various circumstances and for various motives. This has been especially true of women, whether while serving as a soldier in otherwise all-male armies, while protecting themselves or disguising their identity in dangerous circumstances, or for other purposes. Conversely, men would dress as women to avoid being drafted, the mythological precedent for this being Achilles hiding at the court of Lycomedes dressed as a girl to avoid participation in the Trojan War.
  • 2.9K
  • 08 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Mode (Computer Interface)
In user interface design, a mode is a distinct setting within a computer program or any physical machine interface, in which the same user input will produce perceived results different to those that it would in other settings. The best-known modal interface components are probably the Caps lock and Insert keys on the standard computer keyboard, both of which put the user's typing into a different mode after being pressed, then return it to the regular mode after being re-pressed. An interface that uses no modes is known as a modeless interface. Modeless interfaces avoid mode errors by making it impossible for the user to commit them.
  • 2.9K
  • 16 Nov 2022
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