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Biography
Keith Holyoak
Keith James Holyoak (born January 16, 1950) is a Canadian-American researcher in cognitive psychology and cognitive science, working on human thinking and reasoning. Holyoak's work focuses on the role of analogy in thinking.[1] His work showed how analogy can be used to enhance learning of new abstract concepts by both children and adults,[2] as well as how reasoning breaks down in cases of brai
  • 1.1K
  • 23 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Minimally Invasive Procedures
Minimally invasive procedures (also known as minimally invasive surgeries) encompass surgical techniques that limit the size of incisions needed and so lessen wound healing time, associated pain and risk of infection. Surgery by definition is invasive and many operations requiring incisions of some size are referred to as open surgery, in which incisions made can sometimes leave large wounds that are painful and take a long time to heal. Minimally invasive procedures have been enabled by the advance of various medical technologies. An endovascular aneurysm repair as an example of minimally invasive surgery is much less invasive in that it involves much smaller incisions than the corresponding open surgery procedure of open aortic surgery. This minimally invasive surgery became the most common method of repairing abdominal aortic aneurysms in 2003 in the United States. The front-runners of minimally invasive procedures were interventional radiologists. By the use of imaging techniques, interventional instruments could be directed throughout the body by the radiologists by way of catheters instead of large incisions needed in traditional surgery, so that many conditions once requiring surgery can now be treated non-surgically. Diagnostic techniques that do not involve the puncturing of the skin or incision, or the introduction into the body of foreign objects or materials, are known as non-invasive procedures. There are also several treatment procedures that are classed as non-invasive. A major example of a non-invasive alternative treatment to surgery is radiation therapy, also called radiotherapy.
  • 1.1K
  • 11 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale
The Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale (ASRS) Symptom Checklist is a self-reported questionnaire used to assist in the diagnosis of adult ADHD. ADHD is a neurological disorder that can present itself in adolescence and adulthood. Some individuals can outgrow ADHD but around 30% will continue to have ADHD throughout their adulthood. Adults with ADHD may experience difficulties in relation to cognitive, academic, occupational, social and economic situations. The PhenX Toolkit uses ASRS as its adult protocol for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Symptoms.
  • 1.1K
  • 15 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Knee and Hip Osteoarthritis
Degenerative joint disease or osteoarthrosis (OA) is a progressive joint disease characterized by the focal loss of cartilage, little evidence of the typical form of inflammation, and by the hypertrophy of adjacent bone and soft tissue.
  • 1.1K
  • 27 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Cover Test
A cover test or cover-uncover test is an objective determination of the presence and amount of ocular deviation. It is typically performed by orthoptists, ophthalmologists and optometrists during eye examinations. The two primary types of cover tests are: The test involves having the patient focusing on both a distance as well as near object at different times during the examination. A cover is placed over an eye for a short moment then removed while observing both eyes for movement. The misaligned eye will deviate inwards or outwards. The process is repeated on both eyes and then with the child focusing on a distant object. The cover test is used to determine both the type of ocular deviation and measure the amount of deviation. The two primary types of ocular deviations are the tropia and the phoria. A tropia is a misalignment of the two eyes when a patient is looking with both eyes uncovered. A phoria (or latent deviation) only appears when binocular viewing is broken and the two eyes are no longer looking at the same object. The unilateral cover test is performed by having the patient focus on an object then covering the fixating eye and observing the movement of the other eye. If the eye was exotropic, covering the fixating eye will cause an inwards movement; and esotropic if covering the fixating eye will cause an outwards movement. The alternating cover test, or cross cover test is used to detect total deviation (tropia + phoria).
  • 1.1K
  • 16 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Helicobacter pylori Infections
The objective of this entry is twofold. First, author perform a systematic review ofthe economic evaluation studies applied to assess the efficiency of diagnostic testing for the H. pylori infection. Author intend to summarize the methods applied to these economic evaluations and to highlight the main characteristics of these studies. The second objectiveis to learn from the literature review how the AMR issue is incorporated in economic evaluation of diagnostic testing.
  • 1.1K
  • 05 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Video Game-related Health Problems
Game addiction problems can induce repetitive strain injuries, skin disorders or other health issues. Other problems include video game-provoked seizures in patients with epilepsy. In rare and extreme cases, deaths have resulted from excessive video game playing (see Deaths due to video game addiction).
  • 1.1K
  • 05 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Adhesion
Adhesions are fibrous bands that form between tissues and organs, often as a result of injury during surgery. They may be thought of as internal scar tissue that connects tissues not normally connected.
  • 1.1K
  • 22 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Pneumococcal Pneumonia
Pneumococcal infection can have serious implications in pneumonia and sepsis. Patients with SCD who have functional asplenia and increased oxidative stress in the vasculature, are at great risk for pneumococcal infections from infancy through to their adult lives.
  • 1.1K
  • 23 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Korean Red Ginseng Ameliorates Fatigue
Fatigue is both a physiological defense response and a disease-associated symptom; therefore, it is a common complaint in both the general population and patients with various disorders. Fatigue can be generally classified according to duration as acute (≤1 month), prolonged (1< and ≤6 months), and chronic, lasting over 6 months. Chronic fatigue is the main fatigue-related issue in the clinic, and its prevalence is approximately 10% in the general population. In particular, medically unexplained chronic fatigue, such as chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS), has a more serious impact on health-related quality of life than brain stroke, angina pectoris, or schizophrenia.
  • 1.1K
  • 10 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Islet Transplantation
Islet transplantation is considered as a promising and reliable cellular replacement therapy for severe diabetes mellitus patients with unstable condition of blood glucose level despite intensive insulin therapy, especially for insulin-dependent type 1 diabetes mellitus patients. The therapeutic outcomes of islet transplantation have gradually, but dramatically, improved through innovations in technology regarding islet isolation, transplantation procedures, and immunosuppressants [1].  
  • 1.0K
  • 09 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Neuromodulation
Neuromodulation is "the alteration of nerve activity through targeted delivery of a stimulus, such as electrical stimulation or chemical agents, to specific neurological sites in the body". It is carried out to normalize – or modulate – nervous tissue function. Neuromodulation is an evolving therapy that can involve a range of electromagnetic stimuli such as a magnetic field (rTMS), an electric current, or a drug instilled directly in the subdural space (intrathecal drug delivery). Emerging applications involve targeted introduction of genes or gene regulators and light (optogenetics), and by 2014, these had been at minimum demonstrated in mammalian models, or first-in-human data had been acquired. The most clinical experience has been with electrical stimulation. Neuromodulation, whether electrical or magnetic, employs the body's natural biological response by stimulating nerve cell activity that can influence populations of nerves by releasing transmitters, such as dopamine, or other chemical messengers such as the peptide Substance P, that can modulate the excitability and firing patterns of neural circuits. There may also be more direct electrophysiological effects on neural membranes as the mechanism of action of electrical interaction with neural elements. The end effect is a "normalization" of a neural network function from its perturbed state. Presumed mechanisms of action for neurostimulation include depolarizing blockade, stochastic normalization of neural firing, axonal blockade, reduction of neural firing keratosis, and suppression of neural network oscillations. Although the exact mechanisms of neurostimulation are not known, the empirical effectiveness has led to considerable application clinically. Existing and emerging neuromodulation treatments also include application in medication-resistant epilepsy, chronic head pain conditions, and functional therapy ranging from bladder and bowel or respiratory control to improvement of sensory deficits, such as hearing (cochlear implants and auditory brainstem implants) and vision (retinal implants). Technical improvements include a trend toward minimally invasive (or noninvasive) systems; as well as smaller, more sophisticated devices that may have automated feedback control, and conditional compatibility with magnetic resonance imaging. Neuromodulation therapy has been investigated for other chronic conditions, such as Alzheimer's disease, depression, chronic pain, and as an adjunctive treatment in recovery from stroke.
  • 1.0K
  • 22 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Opioid Tolerance
Opioids are potent analgesics widely used to control acute and chronic pain, but long-term use induces tolerance that reduces their effectiveness. The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) define opioid tolerance as follows (https://www.fda.gov); Patients are considered opioid tolerant if they are taking, for 1 week or longer, at least: - Oral morphine–60 mg daily - Transdermal fentanyl–25 mcg/h - Oral oxycodone–30 mg daily - Oral hydromorphone–8mgdaily - Oral oxymorphone–25mgdaily - Equianalgesic daily dose of another opioid
  • 1.0K
  • 26 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Shoulder Periprosthetic Infections Management
Periprosthetic joint infections of the shoulder are the major cause for revision within the first two post-operative years: bacteria diagnosis and management of humeral bone loss after implant removal may be fronted by new instruments in shoulder surgery.
  • 1.0K
  • 30 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Maintaining Digestive Health in Diabetes
Over the last decades, the incidence of diabetes has increased in developed countries and beyond the genetic impact, environmental factors, which can trigger the activation of the gut immune system, seem to affect the induction of the disease process. Since the composition of the gut microbiome might disturb the normal interaction with the immune system and contribute to altered immune responses, the restoration of normal microbiota composition constitutes a new target for the prevention and treatment of diabetes. Thus, the interaction of gut microbiome and diabetes, focusing on mechanisms connecting gut microbiota with the occurrence of the disorder, is discussed in the present review. Finally, the challenge of functional food diet on maintaining intestinal health and microbial flora diversity and functionality, as a potential tool for the onset inhibition and management of the disease, is highlighted by reporting key animal studies and clinical trials. Early onset of the disease in the oral cavity is an important factor for the incorporation of a functional food diet in daily routine.
  • 1.0K
  • 24 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Vaccination and Religion
Vaccination and religion have interrelations of varying kinds. Almost no religions object to vaccination, and some parents either fake religious adherence or invent fake religions to provide exemption.
  • 1.0K
  • 03 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Chinese Cordyceps in the Antitumor Mechanisms
Chinese Cordyceps is a valuable source of natural products with various therapeutic effects. It is rich in various active components, of which adenosine, cordycepin and polysaccharides have been confirmed with significant immunomodulatory and antitumor functions.
  • 1.0K
  • 30 Nov 2022
Topic Review
HIV Test
HIV tests are used to detect the presence of the human immunodeficiency virus in serum, plasma, saliva, or urine. Such tests may detect HIV antibodies, antigens, or RNA. In the United States, a number of HIV test kits have been approved by the Food and Drug Administration for diagnosis, prognostic determination, patient monitoring, and screening of blood and tissue donors. The specific tests used may vary from country to country. As of 2006, the standard HIV tests used in the U.S. are extremely accurate.
  • 1.0K
  • 27 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Current Vaccines  and Mechanisms of Cancer Vaccines
A vaccine is created to develop specific immunity against a particular disease or infection. The purpose of cancer immunotherapy is to activate the immune system so that it can identify and eliminate cancer cells. Anticancer immunotherapies are classified as either “passive” or “active” based on their ability to (re-)activate the host immune system against malignant cells. Tumor-targeting monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) and adoptively transferred T-cells (among other approaches) are considered passive forms of immunotherapy because they have intrinsic anticancer activity. Antigen-specificity is an alternative classification of immunotherapeutic anticancer regimens. While tumor-targeting mAbs are widely regarded as antigen-specific interventions, immunostimulatory cytokines or checkpoint blockers activate anticancer immune responses with unknown (and generally broad) specificity.
  • 1.0K
  • 15 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Osteoblast Dysfunction
Osteoblasts (Ob) originate from mesenchymal cells, secrete matrix proteins and promote mineralization during the bone modelling and restructuring process. Ob are unable to function as a single cell, in fact they function in a group of cells and the functional unit made up of Ob and the bone produced is called bone multicellular units (BMU). The mineralized skeleton is the support for human body and is a fundamental store of calcium, phosphate, participating also to the basic-acid homeostasis.
  • 1.0K
  • 10 Sep 2021
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