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Topic Review
Mast Cells against Fungal Host Defense
Mast cells take part in host defense against various microorganisms as they are numerous at the portal of infection, exert several essential mechanisms of pathogen destruction, and they express pattern recognition receptors. MCs can support immune responses to fungi and their specific constituents through initiated degranulation, synthesis and release of cytokines, chemokines, mediators, and generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), as well as immune cells' recruitment, phagocytosis, or formation of extracellular DNA traps. 
  • 437
  • 06 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Myocardial Infarction Guided Emergency Hematopoiesis
“Emergency hematopoiesis” occurs after myocardial infarction (MI) and includes different processes: (1) the amplification of leukocyte production, (2) the maturation of alternative leukocyte subsets and (3) the release of myeloid cells from primary and secondary hematopoietic organs.
  • 437
  • 22 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Teleost Piscidins
Fish, like all other animals, are exposed to constant contact with microbes, both on their skin and on the surfaces of their respiratory and digestive systems. Fish have a system of non-specific immune responses that provides them with initial protection against infection and allows them to survive under normal conditions despite the presence of these potential invaders.
  • 436
  • 11 May 2023
Topic Review
Mast Cells and Vitamin D Status
The immune system is made up by an extremely composite group of cells, whose regulated and harmonious activity is fundamental to maintain health. The mast cells are an essential effector of inflammatory response which is characterized by a massive release of mediators accumulated in cytoplasmic secretory granules. However, beyond the effects on immune response, mast cells can modify bone metabolism and are capable of intervening in the genesis of pathologies such as osteoporosis and osteopenia. Vitamin D is recognized to induce changes in bone metabolism, but it is also able to influence immune response, suppressing mast cell activation and IgE synthesis from B cells and increasing the number of dendritic cells and IL-10-generating regulatory T cells. 
  • 436
  • 05 Jun 2023
Topic Review
Two-Pore Channels and Ca2+ Homeostasis in Immune Cells
Two-pore channels (TPCs) are ligand-gated cation-selective ion channels that are preserved in plant and animal cells. In the latter, TPCs are located in membranes of acidic organelles, such as endosomes, lysosomes, and endolysosomes. Mast cells, along with basophil granulocytes, play an essential role in anaphylaxis and allergic reactions by releasing inflammatory mediators. Signaling in mast cells is mainly regulated via the release of Ca2+ from the endoplasmic reticulum as well as from acidic compartments, such as endolysosomes. For the crosstalk of these organelles TPCs seem essential. Allergic reactions and anaphylaxis were previously shown to be associated with the endolysosomal two-pore channel TPC1. The release of histamine, controlled by intracellular Ca2+ signals, was increased upon genetic or pharmacologic TPC1 inhibition. Conversely, stimulation of TPC channel activity by one of its endogenous ligands, namely nicotinic adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NAADP) or phosphatidylinositol 3,5-bisphosphate (PI(3,5)P2), were found to trigger the release of Ca2+ from the endolysosomes; thereby improving the effect of TPC1 on regulated mast cell degranulation. 
  • 435
  • 16 May 2022
Topic Review
Involvement of Immune Cells in CC Immunosuppressive TIME
Cervical cancer (CC) is a major health problem in women of childbearing age. The immune response plays a crucial role in detecting and preventing the development of CC. However, factors such as age, prior or repeated human papillomavirus (HPV) infection, changes in the microbiota of the reproductive tract, and lifestyle choices can lead to immune dysregulation and increase the risk of CC. One of the critical components of the TIME is tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs), which are altered in CC and can contribute to tumor growth. 
  • 435
  • 04 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Extracellular Vesicles in Allergic Airway Disease
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have been reported as promising candidates for the treatment of various diseases, especially allergic diseases, as they have the capacity to differentiate into various cells. MSCs itself has several limitations such as risk of aneuploidy, difficulty in handling, immune rejection, tumorigenicity, so interest in the extracellular vesicles (EVs) released from MSCs is increasing and many studies have been reported. Previous studies have shown that extracellular vesicles (EVs) produced by MSCs is as effective as the MSCs themselves in suppression of allergic airway inflammation through the suppression of Th2 cytokine production and induction of regulatory T cells (Treg) expansion. EVs is one of the substances secreted by paracrine induction from MSCs, and because it exerts its effect by delivering contents such as mRNA, microRNA, and protein to the receptor cell, it can reduce the problems or risks related to stem cell therapy.
  • 434
  • 08 Dec 2022
Topic Review
ILC3s and Intestinal Inflammatory Disorders
Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) are a population of lymphoid cells that do not express T cell or B cell antigen-specific receptors. ILC3s are RORγt-expressing cells and are capable of producing IL-22 and IL-17 to maintain intestinal homeostasis. ILCs, mainly ILC3s, are located at the small intestine lamina propria (siLP). They are the first line in the gut to fight against the pathogens; therefore, their dysfunction will result in intestinal disorders such as inflammation.
  • 433
  • 23 Feb 2022
Topic Review
NOD-Like Receptors in Brief
NOD-Like Receptors (NLRs) represent a critical component of the innate immune system, serving as intracellular sentinels that detect a wide array of pathogenic and danger signals. These versatile receptors play a pivotal role in maintaining immune homeostasis, defending against microbial invaders, and contributing to the onset of inflammatory responses when necessary. 
  • 431
  • 08 Oct 2023
Topic Review
Single Domain Antibody in Medicine
The camelid-derived single chain antibody (sdAb), also termed VHH or nanobody, is a unique, functional heavy (H)-chain antibody (HCAb). In contrast to conventional antibodies, sdAb is a unique antibody fragment consisting of a heavy-chain variable domain. It lacks light chains and a first constant domain (CH1). With a small molecular weight of only 12~15 kDa, sdAb has a similar antigen-binding affinity to conventional Abs but a higher solubility, which exerts unique advantages for the recognition and binding of functional, versatile, target-specific antigen fragments. 
  • 428
  • 03 Mar 2023
Topic Review
Eminent Role of β2-AR in T Cells
Beta2-adrenergic receptors (β2-ARs) are an emerging class of receptors that are capable of modulating the functioning of immune cells. β2-AR is reported to activate regulatory immune cells and inhibit effector immune cells. Blocking β2-AR increases activation, proliferation, and cytokine release of T lymphocytes. Moreover, β2-AR deficiency during metabolic reprogramming of T cells increases mitochondrial membrane potential and biogenesis.
  • 428
  • 31 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Molecular Mechanisms of IL18 in Disease
Interleukin 18 (IL18) was originally identified as an inflammation-induced cytokine that is secreted by immune cells. An increasing number of studies have focused on its non-immunological functions, with demonstrated functions for IL18 in energy homeostasis and neural stability. IL18 is reportedly required for lipid metabolism in the liver and brown adipose tissue. Furthermore, IL18 (Il18) deficiency in mice leads to mitochondrial dysfunction in hippocampal cells, resulting in depressive-like symptoms and cognitive impairment. 
  • 428
  • 20 Dec 2023
Topic Review
M.tb PE_PGRS Acts as an Immunological Decoy
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M.tb) is a successful pathogen that can reside within the alveolar macrophages of the host and can survive in a latent stage. The pathogen has evolved and developed multiple strategies to resist the host immune responses. M.tb escapes from host macrophage through evasion or subversion of immune effector functions. M.tb genome codes for PE/PPE/PE_PGRS proteins, which are intrinsically disordered, redundant and antigenic in nature. These proteins perform multiple functions that intensify the virulence competence of M.tb majorly by modulating immune responses, thereby affecting immune mediated clearance of the pathogen. The highly repetitive, redundant and antigenic nature of PE/PPE/PE_PGRS proteins provide a critical edge over other M.tb proteins in terms of imparting a higher level of virulence and also as a decoy molecule that masks the effect of effector molecules, thereby modulating immuno-surveillance. An understanding of how these proteins subvert the host immunological machinery may add to the current knowledge about M.tb virulence and pathogenesis. This can help in redirecting our strategies for tackling M.tb infections.
  • 427
  • 18 Jan 2022
Topic Review
TLR8 in Viral Infections
Viruses are recognized by several Toll-like receptors (TLRs), including TLR8, which is known to bind ssRNA structures. However, the similarities between TLR8 and TLR7 have obscured the distinctive characteristics of TLR8 activation and its importance in the immune system. 
  • 424
  • 07 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Molecular Mechanisms in Fibrotic Evolution during Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmunity is a chronic process resulting in inflammation, tissue damage, and subsequent tissue remodelling and organ fibrosis. In contrast to acute inflammatory reactions, pathogenic fibrosis typically results from the chronic inflammatory reactions characterizing autoimmune diseases. Despite having obvious aetiological and clinical outcome distinctions, most chronic autoimmune fibrotic disorders have in common a persistent and sustained production of growth factors, proteolytic enzymes, angiogenic factors, and fibrogenic cytokines, which together stimulate the deposition of connective tissue elements or epithelial to mesenchymal transformation (EMT) that progressively remodels and destroys normal tissue architecture leading to organ failure. 
  • 424
  • 25 May 2023
Topic Review
The Link between Implant Failures and Titanium Allergy
Cases of probable titanium allergy included those with true titanium allergies and those with a potentially different cause. However, the differentiation of these cases is difficult. Since no definitive method has been established for diagnosing titanium allergy, a comprehensive diagnosis based on the clinical course and clinical examination using a patch test/lymphocyte transformation test (LTT)/memory lymphocyte immunostimulation assay (MELISA) is necessary. Implant treatment should be performed with caution in patients with any preoperative allergies.
  • 424
  • 20 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Immunomodulation, Bioavailability and Safety of Bacteriocins
Bacteriocins can help in the treatment and prevention of infectious diseases. Moreover, bacteriocins can be obtained in prokaryotic organisms, and contribute s to their widespread use. While the use of bacteriocins is currently limited to the food industry (for example, nisin is used as a preservative, E234), a large number of studies on their microbicidal properties suggest that their use in medicine may increase in the foreseeable future. However, for the successful use of bacteriocins in medicine, it is necessary to understand their effect on the immune system, especially in cases where immunity is weakened due to infectious processes, oncological, allergic, or autoimmune diseases. Studies on the immuno-modulatory activity of bacteriocins in animal models and human cells have revealed their ability to induce both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory factors involved in the implementation of innate immunity. The influence of bacteriocins on acquired immunity is revealed by an increase in the number of T-lymphocytes with a simultaneous decrease in B-lymphocyte levels, which makes them attractive substances for reducing inflammation. The widespread use of bacteriocins in the food industry, their low toxicity, and their broad and narrow specificity are reasons for researchers to pay attention to their immunomodulatory properties and explore their medical applications. Inflammation regulation by bacteriocins can be used in the treatment of various pathologies.
  • 423
  • 24 Jul 2023
Topic Review
IL-17-Member Family
T-helper 17 (Th17) cells represent a subpopulation of CD4+ T lymphocytes that play an essential role in defense against pathogens. Th17 cells are distinguished from Th1 and Th2 cells by their ability to produce members of the interleukin-17 (IL-17) family, namely IL-17A and IL-17F. IL-17 in turn induces several target cells to synthesize and release cytokines, chemokines, and metalloproteinases, thereby amplifying the inflammatory cascade. Th17 cells reside predominantly in the lamina propria of the mucosa.
  • 422
  • 03 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Bone Marrow as Central Immune System
Bone marrow is known as the site of hematopoiesis. What is not being described in textbooks of immunology is the fact that bone marrow is not only a generative, but also an antigen-responsive, immune organ. It is also a major storage site for antigen-specific memory B and T cells.
  • 422
  • 08 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Macrophages and Atherosclerosis
Macrophages are the key inflammatory cell type involved in all stages of atherosclerosis development and progression, as demonstrated by numerous studies. Correspondingly, macrophages are currently regarded as a promising therapeutic target for the development of new treatment approaches. The macrophage population is heterogeneous and dynamic, as these cells can switch between a number of distinct functional states with pro- and anti-atherogenic activity in response to various stimuli. An atherosclerotic plaque microenvironment defined by cytokine levels, cell-to-cell interactions, lipid accumulation, hypoxia, neoangiogenesis, and intraplaque haemorrhage may guide local macrophage polarization processes within the lesion.
  • 420
  • 04 Mar 2022
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