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Topic Review
The Kappa Opioid Receptor for Multiple Sclerosis
Multiple sclerosis (MS) afflicts millions of people worldwide. While multiple therapeutics have recently been developed and approved as treatment agents, they are not 100% effective. Recent developments investigating the endogenous opioid system involvement in MS has revealed that agonists of the kappa opioid receptor (KOR) have beneficial effects in both animal models of MS (and demyelinating disorders more generally) as well as in vitro models of remyelination. Several groups have contributed to this development.
  • 929
  • 17 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Vasopressin-Related Possible Therapies in Autism
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is rather common, presenting with prevalent early problems in social communication and accompanied by repetitive behavior. There is no cure for ASD, and there is currently no medication to treat it. The medications are prescribed mainly to treat self-injury, inability to focus, anxiety and depression (SSRIs), aggression (alpha-2 adrenergic agonist, Clonidine) and hyperactivity (dopamine and noradrenaline stimulant methylphenidate, Ritalin). Strategies to treat the core symptoms of ASD are directed to correct synaptic dysfunctions, abnormalities in central VP, OT and serotonin neurotransmission, and neuroinflammation. 
  • 929
  • 14 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Cognitive Impairment in Parkinson’s Disease
Cognitive impairment is a common non-motor symptom in Parkinson’s Disease (PD) and an important source of patient disability and caregiver burden. The timing, profile and rate of cognitive decline varies widely among individuals with PD and can range from normal cognition to mild cognitive impairment (PD-MCI) and dementia (PDD). Beta-amyloid and tau brain accumulation, oxidative stress and neuroinflammation are reported risk factors for cognitive impairment.
  • 928
  • 18 May 2021
Topic Review
Catatonia: Diagnosis, Treatment and Clinical Challenges
Catatonia is a syndrome that has been associated with several mental illness disorders but that has also presented as a result of other medical conditions. It is defined as a group of symptoms that involve a lack of movement as well as a lack of communication. It can be accompanied by agitation, confusion, and restlessness. Schizophrenia and other psychiatric disorders such as mania and depression are known to be associated with catatonia. The treatment of catatonia often involves the use of benzodiazepines, such as lorazepam, that can be used in combination therapy with antipsychotics. Definitive treatment may be found with electroconvulsive therapy (ECT).
  • 928
  • 07 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Peptide-Based Vaccines for Neurodegenerative Diseases
Neurodegenerative diseases are associated with a progressive loss of neurons in the central nervous system (CNS) and are characterized by severe clinical deficits, especially cognitive, motor, and psychiatric ones. The most common neurodegenerative disease is Alzheimer’s disease (AD), while other well-known neurodegenerative diseases include Parkinson’s disease (PD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), Huntington’s disease (HD), etc. During the last two decades several research endeavors have been devoted to the development of peptide-based active immunotherapies/vaccines for fighting neurodegenerative diseases -aiming, eventually, at clinical application. The most significant among the aforementioned peptide-based candidate vaccines for neurogenerative diseases have been based on specific epitopes of certain biomolecular targets associated with neurodegeneration, especially beta-amyloid peptide (Aβ), tau protein (tau) and α-synuclein (α-syn), as will be presented below. 
  • 926
  • 14 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Crocins
In the extraction of geniposide for the development of natural food colorants from the dried fruits of Gardenia jasminoides Rubiaceae, the gardenia fruit waste (GFW) still remaining 0.86% (w/w) of crocins has always been discarded without any further treatments. Crocins were extracted firstly by 50% of ethanol in the highest yield of 8.61 mg/g (w/w) from GFW. After the HPD-100 column fractionation in the collecting of crocins, the conversion ratio of 75% of crocins to crocetins can be obtained from the commercial available enzyme- Celluclast® 1.5 L. The crocins hydrolyzed products, were then separated through the HPD-100 resin adsorption and finally purified with the centrifugal partition chromatography (CPC) in single-step to obtain TC in a purity of 96.76 ± 0.17%. Conclusively, the effective enzyme transformation and purification co-operated with CPC technologies on crocins resulted in a high purity product of TC may be highly application in the commercial production.
  • 924
  • 14 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Roles of Non-Coding RNA in Alzheimer’s Disease Pathophysiology
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a chronic neurodegenerative disorder that is accompanied by deficits in memory and cognitive functions. The disease is pathologically characterised by the accumulation and aggregation of an extracellular peptide referred to as amyloid-β (Aβ) in the form of amyloid plaques and the intracellular aggregation of a hyperphosphorelated protein tau in the form of neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) that cause neuroinflammation, synaptic dysfunction, and oxidative stress. The search for pathomechanisms leading to disease onset and progression has identified many key players that include genetic, epigenetic, behavioural, and environmental factors, which lend support to the fact that this is a multi-faceted disease where failure in various systems contributes to disease onset and progression. Although the vast majority of individuals present with the sporadic (non-genetic) form of the disease, dysfunctions in numerous protein-coding and non-coding genes have been implicated in mechanisms contributing to the disease.
  • 923
  • 25 Aug 2023
Topic Review
NMDA Receptors and Anti-GluN Autoantibodies in Central Disorders
Autoantibodies against NMDA and AMPA receptors have been identified in the central nervous system of patients suffering from brain disorders characterized by neurological and psychiatric symptoms. It has been demonstrated that these autoantibodies can affect the functions and/or the expression of the targeted receptors, altering synaptic communication. The importance to clarify, in preclinical models, the molecular mechanisms involved in the autoantibody-mediated effects has emerged in order to understand their pathogenic role in central disorders, but also to propose new therapeutic approaches for preventing their deleterious central consequences.
  • 922
  • 20 Nov 2023
Topic Review
The Neuromodulatory Role of the Noradrenergic System
The noradrenergic system is one of four primary neuromodulatory systems. It plays an important function in altering basic synaptic transmission patterns. The groups of neurons responsible for the delivery of the neuromodulators are known as ascending neuromodulatory systems. Norepinephrine (NE) has classically been viewed as a major mediator of arousal that plays an important role in regulating cognition, perception, and sensory processing.
  • 921
  • 01 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Neurotrophins and Brain
Neurotrophins (NTs) are a group of soluble growth factors with analogous structures and functions, identified initially as critical mediators of neuronal survival during development. The relevance of NTs has been confirmed by emerging clinical data showing that impaired NTs levels and functions are involved in the onset of neurological and pulmonary diseases.
  • 921
  • 28 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Obesity-Induced Neuroinflammation
Obesity-induced neuroinflammation is a chronic aseptic central nervous system inflammation that presents systemic characteristics associated with increased pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β) and interleukin 18 (IL-18) and the presence of microglia and reactive astrogliosis as well as the activation of the NOD-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome. The obesity pandemic is associated with lifestyle changes, including an excessive intake of obesogenic foods and decreased physical activity. Brain areas such as the lateral hypothalamus (LH), lateral septum (LS), ventral tegmental area (VTA), and nucleus accumbens (NAcc) have been implicated in the homeostatic and hedonic control of feeding in experimental models of diet-induced obesity. A chronic lipid intake triggers neuroinflammation in several brain regions such as the hypothalamus, hippocampus, and amygdala.
  • 920
  • 19 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Aberrant Vascular System in Neurovascular-Related Diseases
Bidirectional communication between neurons and non-neuronal cells, including glia, plays a role in the pathogenesis of neural diseases. Recent findings have suggested that aberrant vascularization and vascular systems may also be involved in the development of neurodevelopmental diseases and neurodegenerative disorders.
  • 919
  • 19 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Alzheimer’s Disease and Inflammaging
Alzheimer’s disease is one of the most common age-related neurodegenerative disorders. The main theory of Alzheimer’s disease progress is the amyloid-β cascade hypothesis. One of the factors, which might play a key role in senile plaques and tau fibrils generation due to Alzheimer’s disease, is inflammaging, i.e., systemic chronic low-grade age-related inflammation. The activation of the proinflammatory cell phenotype is observed during aging, which might be one of the pivotal mechanisms for the development of chronic inflammatory diseases, e.g., atherosclerosis, metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and Alzheimer’s disease.
  • 917
  • 28 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Hemorrhagic Transformation of Ischemic Strokes
Ischemic stroke (IS), resulting from insufficient blood supply to the brain, is among the leading causes of death and disability worldwide. A potentially severe complication of the disease itself or its treatment aiming to restore optimal blood flow is hemorrhagic transformation (HT) increasing morbidity and mortality.
  • 917
  • 07 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Electrical Stimulation After Spinal Cord Injury
Electrical stimulation is used to enhance the skills of reaching, grasping, standing, and walking, among other activities of daily living.
  • 915
  • 25 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Intranasal Nanoemulsions for the Management of Brain Diseases
The intranasal pathway (olfactory and trigeminal nerves) lets the entry of various bioactive agents circumvent the hepatic first-pass effect, thus targetingneurological diseases. Several investigations and research have suggested the vital role ofdrug-loaded nanoemulsions in the mitigation of countless brain disorders proves to be a potential alternative to oral drug delivery systems. Further, mucoadhesive polymer enriched nanoemulsion prolongs residence time and therapeutic effect by weakening rapid clearance from the nasal mucosa. Obtained nanoemulsion possessed ~68 nm average particle size and positive zeta potential (~13 mV). The formulation exhibited 85.5% encapsulation efficiency and 72 h prolonged in vitro release of luteolin. Ex vivo performed Baker–Lonsdale kinetic model depicted approximately six times higher permeation across the nasal mucosa. Moreover, pharmacokinetic studies of the single dose administered intranasal nanoemulsion revealed a tentimes higher drug half-life and nearly a four times higher luteolin biodistribution in brain tissues that further suggested potential usage of developed chitosan-coated luteolin nanoemulsion for the management of brain neuroblastoma. 
  • 915
  • 25 Jun 2023
Topic Review
Electrocochleography in Auditory Neuropathy
Auditory Neuropathy (AN) is characterized by disruption of temporal coding of acoustic signals in auditory nerve fibers resulting in alterations of auditory perceptions. Mutations in several genes have been associated to the most forms of AN. Underlying mechanisms include both pre-synaptic and post-synaptic damage involving inner hair cell (IHC) depolarization, neurotransmitter release, spike initiation in auditory nerve terminals, loss of auditory fibers and impaired conduction. In contrast, outer hair cell (OHC) activities (otoacoustic emissions [OAEs] and cochlear microphonic [CM]) are normal. Disordered synchrony of auditory nerve activity has been suggested as the basis of both the alterations of auditory brainstem responses (ABRs) and reduction of speech perception. Authors will review how electrocochleography (ECochG) recordings provide detailed information to help objectively define the sites of auditory neural dysfunction and their effect on receptor summating potential (SP) and neural compound action potential (CAP), the latter reflecting disorders of ribbon synapses and auditory nerve fibers.
  • 913
  • 30 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Effect of Physical Exercise in Alzheimer’s Disease Patients
Physical exercise (PE) can be a non-pharmacological intervention in delaying cognitive decline in patients with Alzheimer’s disease (AD) not only by improving cardiovascular fitness but also by attenuating neuroinflammation. Animal studies consistently report that PE improves cardiovascular fitness and attenuates AD-promoting processing of amyloid precursor protein and neuroinflammation, facilitates brain clearance of toxic amyloid β peptides and oligomers and promotes brain connectivity and nerve cell viability. Further studies in human are necessary to develop optimal, personalised protocols to take full advantage of the beneficial effects of PE that promote cardiovascular fitness, attenuate systemic inflammation, stimulate brain amyloid β peptides brain catabolism, delay immunescence and support brain clearance of amyloid β peptides and their catabolism in peripheral organs.
  • 913
  • 06 May 2022
Topic Review
Monitoring Macromolecules Directly from the Cerebral Interstitial Fluid
There are only a few techniques available that allow for the direct sampling from the cerebral interstitial space and thus provide insight into real concentrations in the brain parenchyma. Such techniques are microdialysis, cerebral open flow microperfusion (cOFM), and biosensors. Innovations in the field are discussed, along with the ‘nuts and bolts’ of the techniques.
  • 912
  • 22 Jun 2022
Topic Review
SARS-CoV-2 and Brain
The second year of the COVID-19 (coronavirus disease) pandemic has seen the need to identify and assess the long-term consequences of a SARS-CoV-2 infection on an individual’s overall wellbeing, including adequate cognitive functioning. ‘Cognitive COVID’ is an informal term coined to interchangeably refer to acute changes in cognition during COVID-19 and/or cognitive sequelae with various deficits following the infection. These may manifest as altered levels of consciousness, encephalopathy-like symptoms, delirium, and loss of various memory domains. Dysexecutive syndrome is a peculiar manifestation of ‘Cognitive COVID’ as well.
  • 911
  • 12 Aug 2021
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