Your browser does not fully support modern features. Please upgrade for a smoother experience.
Subject:
All Disciplines Arts & Humanities Biology & Life Sciences Business & Economics Chemistry & Materials Science Computer Science & Mathematics Engineering Environmental & Earth Sciences Medicine & Pharmacology Physical Sciences Public Health & Healthcare Social Sciences
Sort by:
Most Viewed Latest Alphabetical (A-Z) Alphabetical (Z-A)
Filter:
All Topic Review Biography Peer Reviewed Entry Video Entry
Topic Review
Cortical Visual Impairment in Childhood
Cortical visual impairment in childhood is a kind of visual damage congenitally sustained by children.
  • 983
  • 14 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Preclinical and Clinical Endeavors Targeting Mitochondria
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a devastating neurodegenerative disease characterized by the progressive loss of motor neurons, for which current treatment options are limited. Recent studies have shed light on the role of mitochondria in ALS pathogenesis, making them an attractive therapeutic intervention target.
  • 983
  • 26 Feb 2024
Topic Review
Autism Spectrum Disorder and Gut Microbiota
Autism is a group of neurodevelopmental disorders, characterized by early onset difficulties in social communication and restricted, repetitive behaviors and interests. It is characterized by familial aggregation, suggesting that genetic factors play a role in disease development, in addition to developmentally early environmental factors. An intimate relationship between ASD and several medical comorbidities, such as sleep problems and many psychiatry-related comorbidities, i.e., attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (AD/HD), anxiety, mood problems, and disruptive behavior, was reported. Anyway, gastrointestinal comorbidities have a special role in their association with ASD. Indeed, since 1943, Kanner reported that ASD subjects showed severe feeding difficulties from their first days of life. Studies related to this association have crossed the entire path of evolution of knowledge on ASD. This association sustained a close relationship between ASD and gut microbiota.
  • 982
  • 27 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Reactive Oxygen Species-Induced mtDNA Release
One of the most striking hallmarks shared by various neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, is microglia-mediated and astrocyte-mediated neuroinflammation. Although inhibitions of both harmful proteins and aggregation are major treatments for neurodegenerative diseases, whether the phenomenon of non-normal protein or peptide aggregation is causally related to neuronal loss and synaptic damage is still controversial. Currently, excessive production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which induces mitochondrial dysfunction in neurons that may play a key role in the regulation of immune cells, is proposed as a regulator in neurological disorders. In this review, we propose that mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) release due to ROS may act on microglia and astrocytes adjacent to neurons to induce inflammation through activation of innate immune responses (such as cGAS/STING). Elucidating the relationship between mtDNA and the formation of a pro-inflammatory microenvironment could contribute to a better understanding of the mechanism of crosstalk between neuronal and peripheral immune cells and lead to the development of novel therapeutic approaches to neurodegenerative diseases.
  • 982
  • 17 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Glutathione in Ischemia-Induced Hippocampal Injury
Stroke is a major cause of death worldwide, leading to serious disability. Post-ischemic injury, especially in the cerebral ischemia-prone hippocampus, is a serious problem, as it contributes to vascular dementia. Many studies have shown that in the hippocampus, ischemia/reperfusion induces neuronal death through oxidative stress and neuronal zinc (Zn2+) dyshomeostasis. Glutathione (GSH) plays an important role in protecting neurons against oxidative stress as a major intracellular antioxidant. In addition, the thiol group of GSH can function as a principal Zn2+ chelator for the maintenance of Zn2+ homeostasis in neurons. These lines of evidence suggest that neuronal GSH levels could be a key factor in post-stroke neuronal survival. In neurons, excitatory amino acid carrier 1 (EAAC1) is involved in the influx of cysteine, and intracellular cysteine is the rate-limiting substrate for the synthesis of GSH. Recently, several studies have indicated that cysteine uptake through EAAC1 suppresses ischemia-induced neuronal death via the promotion of hippocampal GSH synthesis in ischemic animal models.
  • 980
  • 06 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Three Members of the Synuclein Family
Synucleins are a family of small aggregation-prone proteins consisting of three members, alpha, beta and gamma-synuclein. Alpha-synuclein is the most investigated member of the family due to its involvement in neurodegenerative diseases called synucleinopatjies. Synucleins easily change their conformation and may be converted to toxic aggregates. They are in the focus of attention of biochemists, molecular and cellular biologists who try to reveal their normal functions and role  in diseaases.  
  • 980
  • 03 Jan 2023
Topic Review Peer Reviewed
Oxidation of Antipsychotics
Antipsychotics (APs) are psychotropic drugs that generally have a psycholeptic effect, capable of reducing psychotic symptoms and psychomotor agitation. This class of drugs is widely used in psychiatric practice, especially for the treatment of psychosis in schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders. Most APs pass through a biotransformation process, or metabolism, after they enter the body before being eliminated. There are three phases of AP metabolism. Cytochrome P450 (CYP) monooxygenase (mixed-function oxidase) plays a central role in most AP biotransformation. CYP’s functional activity depends on gene–drug and drug–drug interaction and influences on the occurrence of adverse drug reactions (ADRs). So, it is extremely important for a practicing psychiatrist to know the oxidation pathway of APs, since most of them are metabolized in the liver. This is important both to prevent ADRs and to avoid unwanted drug–drug interactions, which will undoubtedly increase the effectiveness and safety of AP therapy. 
  • 977
  • 20 May 2022
Topic Review
Extracellular Matrix Regulation in Brain Disease
The extracellular matrix (ECM) surrounds cells in the brain, providing structural and functional support. Emerging studies demonstrate that the ECM plays important roles during development, in the healthy adult brain, and in brain diseases.
  • 977
  • 04 May 2023
Topic Review
Apolipoprotein E Epigenetics on Aging and Alzheimer’s Disease
Modifications of gene expression (epigenetic alterations) have been implicated in the pathogenesis of complex diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Apolipoprotein E (ApoE), a major lipid carrier in the central nervous system, possesses three variants, E2, E3, and E4, with APOE4 increasing the risk of developing AD. 
  • 976
  • 21 Dec 2023
Topic Review
TMS and Motor Cortex Excitability
The TMS is a noninvasive method to investigate the CNS in the human. Transcranial magnetic stimulation, since its introduction in 1985, has brought important innovations to the study of cortical excitability as it is a non-invasive method and, therefore, can be used both in healthy and sick subjects. Since the introduction of this cortical stimulation technique, it has been possible to deepen the neurophysiological aspects of motor activation and control. Repetitive physical training is generally considered as a principal strategy for acquiring a motor skill, and this process can elicit cortical motor representational changes referred to as use-dependent plasticity. In training settings, physical practice combined with the observation of target movements can enhance cortical excitability and facilitate the process of learning. The data to date suggest that TMS is a valid technique to investigate the changes in motor cortex excitability in trained and untrained subjects.
  • 975
  • 05 May 2021
Topic Review
Hypo-Thalamic Circuits
The hypothalamus is a complex structure that is composed of many nuclei and diverse neuronal cell groups. It is characterized by intricate intrahypothalamic circuits that orchestrate a finely tuned communication within the CNS and with the PNS. Hypothalamic circuits are critical for maintaining homeostatic challenges including immune responses to viral infections.
  • 974
  • 07 May 2021
Topic Review
Extrapyramidal and Non-Motor Features of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is the most common motor neuron disease (MND) and has emerged, among the disorders, with the largest increase in incidence in Western countries. ALS can no longer be considered a disease limited to the motor system but rather a multisystem neurodegenerative disorder that involves other motor and non-motor domains
  • 974
  • 19 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Continuous Spike–Waves during Slow Sleep
In the context of childhood epilepsy, the concept of continuous spike–waves during slow sleep (CSWS) includes several childhood-onset heterogeneous conditions that share electroencephalograms (EEGs) characterized by a high frequency of paroxysmal abnormalities during sleep, which have negative effects on the cognitive development and behavior of the child. These negative effects may have the characteristics of a clear regression or of a slowdown in development. Seizures are very often present, but not constantly. The above makes it clear why CSWS have been included in epileptic encephalopathies, in which, by definition, frequent EEG paroxysmal abnormalities have an unfavorable impact on cognitive functions, including socio-communicative skills, causing autistic features, even regardless of the presence of clinically overt seizures.
  • 974
  • 05 Feb 2024
Topic Review
Therapeutic Antiaging Strategies
Aging constitutes progressive physiological changes in an organism. These changes alter the normal biological functions, such as the ability to manage metabolic stress, and eventually lead to cellular senescence. Scientific achievements have been focused on producing effective antiaging therapeutics that have dramatically improved human life expectancy. Many studies on animal models looking at genetics and dietary and pharmacological interventions have shown an enhanced lifespan. Other studies have examined antiaging strategies, such as enhancement of autophagy, elimination of senescent cells, transfusion of young blood, intermittent fasting, stem cell therapy, physical exercise, adult neurogenesis boost, and antioxidant and herbal intakes.
  • 970
  • 08 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Retinal Ganglion Cells Regeneration
Glaucoma, the second leading cause of blindness worldwide, is an incurable neurodegenerative disorder due to the dysfunction of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). RGCs function as the only output neurons conveying the detected light information from the retina to the brain, which is a bottleneck of vision formation. RGCs in mammals cannot regenerate if injured, and RGC subtypes differ dramatically in their ability to survive and regenerate after injury. Recently, novel RGC subtypes and markers have been uncovered in succession. Meanwhile, apart from great advances in RGC axon regeneration, some degree of experimental RGC regeneration has been achieved by the in vitro differentiation of embryonic stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells or in vivo somatic cell reprogramming, which provides insights into the future therapy of myriad neurodegenerative disorders. Further approaches to the combination of different factors will be necessary to develop efficacious future therapeutic strategies to promote ultimate axon and RGC regeneration and functional vision recovery following injury.
  • 969
  • 22 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Virus and Accelerated Brain Aging
Accelerated brain aging is often related to enhanced neurodegeneration, which includes loss of neuronal cell structure and function due to (1) metabolic changes, (2) neuronal cell death (3) decline in the neuronal network, (4) neuronal functional deficiency, (5) decline in neuronal regeneration, or (6) a combination of the mentioned reasons. It also includes functional and structural changes of the glial cells, resulting in demyelination and gliosis. Neurodegeneration is aggravated by neuroinflammation, which contributes substantially to accelerated brain aging. Neuroinflammation usually correlates with the activation of microglia, the resident macrophages and innate immune cells of the brain.
  • 969
  • 03 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Immunotherapy in Glioblastoma
Glioblastoma is the most frequent and the most aggressive brain tumor. Even with the most current treatment, its prognosis remains dismal. Immunotherapies, novel cancer therapies using the patient’s own immune system to fight cancer, have revolutionized the treatment of numerous cancer types and generate great hope for glioblastoma. In this review, we analyze the challenges immunotherapy is facing in glioblastoma, present the different immunotherapy approaches with corresponding key clinical trial findings, and finally discuss limitations and how they might be overcome. Proof of efficacy for immunotherapies remains to be demonstrated in glioblastoma, but novel combinatorial approaches remain promising.
  • 969
  • 29 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Central Nervous System Delivery of Antibodies
Antibodies, otherwise known as immunoglobulins (Igs), are glycoprotein molecules produced by plasma cells and are mostly found in blood and lymphoid tissues. The primary function of antibodies in vivo is to recognize and neutralize infectious agents, such as pathogenic bacteria and viruses. Antibodies are directed against various antigens and play a pivotal role in the defense mechanism of higher vertebrates and are also involved in autoimmune diseases and allergies.
  • 966
  • 29 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Yeast as a Model for VPS13-Dependent Neurodegenerative Diseases
Mutations in human VPS13A-D genes result in rare neurological diseases, including chorea-acanthocytosis (ChAc). The pathogenesis of these diseases is poorly understood, and no effective treatment is available. As VPS13 genes are evolutionarily conserved, the effects of the pathogenic mutations could be studied in model organisms, including yeast, where one VPS13 gene is present. Here, the researchers summarize advancements obtained using yeast. In recent studies, vps13Δ and vps13-I2749 yeast mutants, which are models of chorea-acanthocytosis, were used to screen for multicopy and chemical suppressors. Two of the suppressors, a fragment of the MYO3 and RCN2 genes, act by downregulating calcineurin activity. In addition, vps13Δ suppression was achieved by using calcineurin inhibitors. The other group of multicopy suppressors were genes: FET4, encoding iron transporter, and CTR1, CTR3 and CCC2, encoding copper transporters. Mechanisms of their suppression rely on causing an increase in the intracellular iron content. Moreover, among the identified chemical suppressors were copper ionophores, which require a functional iron uptake system for activity, and flavonoids, which bind iron. These findings point at areas for further investigation in a higher eukaryotic model of VPS13-related diseases and to new therapeutic targets: calcium signalling and copper and iron homeostasis. Furthermore, the identified drugs are interesting candidates for drug repurposing for these diseases.
  • 965
  • 18 May 2022
Topic Review
General Characteristics of Exendin-4
Exendin-4 (Ex-4), better known in its synthetic form and used clinically as exenatide, applied in the treatment of diabetes, induces a beneficial impact on nerve cells, and shows promising effects in obstructive lung diseases.
  • 965
  • 13 Sep 2022
  • Page
  • of
  • 54
Featured Entry Collections
>>

Featured Books

>>
Encyclopedia of Digital Society, Industry 5.0 and Smart City
Encyclopedia of Engineering
Encyclopedia of Social Sciences
Encyclopedia of COVID-19
Academic Video Service
Feedback