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Topic Review
History of the Portable Document Format (PDF)
The Portable Document Format was created in the early 1990s by Adobe Systems, introduced at the Windows and OS|2 Conference in January 1993 and remained a proprietary format until it was released as an open standard in 2008. Since then, it is under control of International Organization for Standardization Committee of volunteer industry experts. PDF was developed to share documents, including text formatting and inline images, among computer users of disparate platforms who may not have access to mutually-compatible application software.It was created by a research and developement team called Camelot, led by Adobe's co-founder John Warnock. PDF was one among a number of competing formats such as DjVu, Envoy, Common Ground Digital Paper, Farallon Replica and even Adobe's own PostScript format. In those early years before the rise of the World Wide Web and HTML documents, PDF was popular mainly in desktop publishing workflows. PDF's adoption in the early days of the format's history was slow. Adobe Acrobat, Adobe's suite for reading and creating PDF files, was not freely available; early versions of PDF had no support for external hyperlinks, reducing its usefulness on the Internet; the larger size of a PDF document compared to plain text required longer download times over the slower modems common at the time; and rendering PDF files was slow on the less powerful machines of the day. Adobe distributed its Adobe Reader (now Acrobat Reader) program free of charge from version 2.0 onwards, and continued supporting the original PDF, which eventually became the de facto standard for fixed-format electronic documents. In 2008 Adobe Systems' PDF Reference 1.7 became ISO 32000:1:2008. Thereafter, further development of PDF (including PDF 2.0) is conducted by ISO's TC 171 SC 2 WG 8 with the participation of Adobe Systems and other subject matter experts.
  • 3.4K
  • 14 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Upāsaka and Upāsikā
Upāsaka (masculine) or Upāsikā (feminine) are from the Sanskrit and Pāli words for "attendant". This is the title of followers of Buddhism (or, historically, of Gautama Buddha) who are not monks, nuns, or novice monastics in a Buddhist order, and who undertake certain vows. In modern times they have a connotation of dedicated piety that is best suggested by terms such as "lay devotee" or "devout lay follower".
  • 3.4K
  • 23 Nov 2022
Topic Review
RNA Aptamers
RNA aptamers are becoming increasingly attractive due to their superior properties. 
  • 3.4K
  • 18 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Anal Stenosis
Anal stenosis (AS) is defined as anatomical or functional narrowing of the anal canal, which can result from inflammatory bowel diseases, radiation therapy, congenital malformations, or excisional hemorrhoidectomy. The anatomical AS is related to the increased fibrous scar tissue forming, which disables stretching of the anal canal. The leading cause of the anatomical AS is excisional hemorrhoidectomy that is often the chosen treatment for grade III and IV hemorrhoidal disease.
  • 3.4K
  • 18 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Monitoring Net Land Take in Europe
Land as an environmental resource has gained increasing importance in European policies. The target of “no net land take” by 2050, set by the 2011 Roadmap to a Resource Efficient Europe, is also reinforced by the Soil Strategy of the European Union for 2030. Net land take evaluates, for a given period, the difference between land take and developed land re-naturalization. Its reduction is only feasible by increasing the re-naturalization of developed land, an intervention undertaken in specific and rare circumstances. Accordingly, reusing or recycling developed land is the only intervention that substantially prevents land take. The following defines the three processes for which monitoring is necessary to evaluate the achievement of this target. Then, the legal framework of the European goal is presented, as well as the interventions that can contribute to its pursuit and the actions already taken by some countries and regions in Europe towards this end.
  • 3.4K
  • 13 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Logistics Sprawl
The concentration of warehouses in peripheral regions of metropolitan areas in a time period is called logistics sprawl (LS).
  • 3.4K
  • 27 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Cat Behavior and Cat–Human Interactions: Brief Introduction
This entry summarised what is known about domestic cat behaviour and cat-human relations and what still needs to be examined, listing unanswered questions and hypotheses. Below is a selection of the topics covered in the original review. An English version of reference "50" (in French) may be requested and e-mailed legally (by contract) from the author by individuals as long as the original reference will be cited in French.
  • 3.4K
  • 28 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Hydrogen Storage Techniques for On-Board Applications
Hydrogen as an energy carrier could help decarbonize industrial, building, and transportation sectors, and be used in fuel cells to generate electricity, power, or heat. One of the numerous ways to solve the climate crisis is to make the vehicles on our roads as clean as possible. Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) have demonstrated a high potential in storing and converting chemical energy into electricity with zero carbon dioxide emissions. This text presents the most favorable hydrogen storage approaches for FCEV on-board applications. To achieve long-range autonomy (over 500 km), FCEVs must be capable of storing 5-10 kg of hydrogen in compressed vessels at 700 bar, with Type IV vessels being the primary option. Although physical and chemical storage technologies are expected to be valuable to the hydrogen economy, compressed hydrogen storage remains the most advanced technology for on-board applications.
  • 3.4K
  • 09 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Diabetic Wound Healing
Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a common endocrine disease characterized by a state of hyperglycemia (higher level of glucose in the blood than usual). DM and its complications can lead to diabetic foot ulcer (DFU). DFU is associated with impaired wound healing, due to inappropriate cellular and cytokines response, infection, poor vascularization, and neuropathy. Effective therapeutic strategies for the management of impaired wound could be attained through a better insight of molecular mechanism and pathophysiology of diabetic wound healing. Nanotherapeutics-based agents engineered within 1–100 nm levels, which include nanoparticles and nanoscaffolds, are recent promising treatment strategies for accelerating diabetic wound healing. Nanoparticles are smaller in size and have high surface area to volume ratio that increases the likelihood of biological interaction and penetration at wound site. They are ideal for topical delivery of drugs in a sustained manner, eliciting cell-to-cell interactions, cell proliferation, vascularization, cell signaling, and elaboration of biomolecules necessary for effective wound healing. Furthermore, nanoparticles have the ability to deliver one or more therapeutic drug molecules, such as growth factors, nucleic acids, antibiotics, and antioxidants, which can be released in a sustained manner within the target tissue. This review focuses on recent approaches in the development of nanoparticle-based therapeutics for enhancing diabetic wound healing.
  • 3.4K
  • 13 Jul 2020
Topic Review
Consumer and Food Product Innovations
New lifestyles, higher incomes and better consumer awareness are increasing the demand for a year-round supply of innovative food products. In past decades, important developments have been achieved in areas related to food and the food industry. This entry shows that factors influencing performance in new product development (NPD) are dynamic and continuously guiding project development. The data obtained by direct involvement of consumers can impact positively successful product development and enhance the company’s financial performance. The study of consumer behaviour and attitudes towards new foods encompasses multiple aspects, such as preference, choice, desire to eat certain foods, buying intentions and frequency of consumption. Additionally, both the consumers’ willingness to purchase and the willingness to pay a premium are important in NPD, launching and success.
  • 3.4K
  • 27 Sep 2020
Topic Review Peer Reviewed
The Infusion of Gamification in Promoting Chemical Engineering Laboratory Classes
Active learning strategies are increasingly implemented in chemical engineering education, yet challenges persist in stimulating student participation and motivation. The rigorous demands placed on students in this field, from complex practical requirements to extensive programming and computational skills, underscore the need for innovative educational tools. Gamification emerges as a pivotal instrument in this context, fostering active student engagement, enhancing practical application of knowledge, increasing motivation, and providing a more precise assessment of student comprehension. These educational games serve as a powerful adjunct to traditional teaching strategies, equipping students with necessary skills for their future careers in the field. These games include laboratory course games, process simulators, games used in foundational courses, and those centered around reaction kinetics. This entry primarily investigates the various games employed to bolster student learning during chemical engineering laboratory courses. A thorough analysis is conducted on the survey of existing games used specifically in chemical engineering labs. The gamut of games discussed includes escape games, along with Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR) games, all aiming to enhance laboratory experiences in areas such as fluid mechanics, organic reactions, and process control. This entry concludes by examining the prospective trajectory of gamification in chemical engineering labs, offering insights into future potential and advancements in this innovative educational approach.
  • 3.4K
  • 05 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Environmental Aspects of the Electric Car
Electric cars (or electric vehicles, EVs) have different environmental impacts compared to conventional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). While aspects of their production can induce similar, less or alternative environmental impacts, some models produce little or no tailpipe emissions, and some have the potential to reduce dependence on petroleum and greenhouse gas emissions, depending on the source of electricity used to charge them, and health effects from air pollution. Electric motors are significantly more efficient than internal combustion engines and thus, even accounting for typical power plan efficiencies and distribution losses, less energy is required to operate an EV. Producing batteries for electric cars requires additional resources and energy, so they may have a larger environmental footprint from the production phase. EVs also generate different impacts in their operation and maintenance. EVs are typically heavier and could produce more tire, brake, and road dust, but their regenerative braking could reduce brake particulate pollution. EVs are mechanically simpler, which reduces the use and disposal of engine oil.
  • 3.4K
  • 30 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Pisces
Pisces, the Latin term for "fishes," is a sprawling constellation in the northern celestial hemisphere, representing two fish tied together by a cord. Positioned between Aquarius and Aries along the ecliptic, Pisces is rich in mythology and serves as a prominent fixture in both ancient and modern astronomy.
  • 3.4K
  • 15 Mar 2024
Topic Review
Autism
Kanner autism, or classic autism, is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by challenges with social communication, and by restricted and repetitive behaviors. It is now considered part of the wider autism spectrum. The term 'autism' was historically used to refer specifically to Kanner autism, which is the convention used in this entry, but it is now more commonly used for the spectrum at large. Parents often notice signs of autism during the first three years of their child's life. These signs often develop gradually, though some autistic children experience regression in their communication and social skills after reaching developmental milestones at a normal pace. Autism has been hypothesized to be associated with a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Risk factors during pregnancy include certain infections, such as rubella, toxins including valproic acid, alcohol, cocaine, pesticides, lead, and air pollution, fetal growth restriction, and autoimmune diseases. Controversies surround other proposed environmental causes; for example, the vaccine hypothesis, which although disproven, continues to hold sway in certain communities. Autism affects information processing in the brain and how nerve cells and their synapses connect and organize; how this occurs is not well understood. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) combines forms of the condition, including high functioning autism (HFA), which was formerly known as Asperger syndrome, and pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS) into the diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Several interventions have been shown to reduce symptoms and improve the ability of autistic people to function and participate independently in the community. Behavioral, psychological, education, and/or skill-building interventions may be used to assist autistic people to learn life skills necessary for living independently, as well as other social, communication, and language skills. Therapy also aims to reduce challenging behaviors and build upon strengths. Some autistic adults are unable to live independently. An autistic culture has developed, with some individuals seeking a cure and others believing autism should be accepted as a difference to be accommodated instead of cured. Globally, autism is estimated to affect 24.8 million people (As of 2015). In the 2000s, the number of autistic people worldwide was estimated at 1–2 per 1,000 people. In the developed countries, about 1.5% of children are diagnosed with ASD (As of 2017), up from 0.7% in 2000 in the United States. It is diagnosed four to five times more often in males than females. The number of people diagnosed has increased considerably since the 1990s, which may be partly due to increased recognition of the condition.
  • 3.4K
  • 28 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Forensic Pathology
Forensic pathology is pathology that focuses on determining the cause of death by examining a corpse. A post mortem examination is performed by a medical examiner or forensic pathologist, usually during the investigation of criminal law cases and civil law cases in some jurisdictions. Coroners and medical examiners are also frequently asked to confirm the identity of remains.
  • 3.4K
  • 30 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Business Process Outsourcing in the Philippines
One of the most dynamic and fastest growing sectors in the Philippines is the information technology–business process outsourcing (IT-BPO) industry. The industry is composed of eight sub-sectors, namely, knowledge process outsourcing and back offices, animation, call centers, software development, game development, engineering design, and medical transcription. The IT-BPO industry plays a major role in the country's growth and development.
  • 3.4K
  • 10 Oct 2022
Topic Review
GeoAI in Integrated Hydrological and Fluvial Systems Modeling
Geospatial artificial intelligence (GeoAI) allows the harnessing of big and high-dimensional data to better understand the hydrological processes in a particular system. Specifically, GeoAI provides new data analytic tools to the entire data processing cycle, such as sensor data fusion, hydrological modeling, data assimilation, multi-objective scenario optimization, smart decision support, evaluation of climate change impact, construction of early warning systems, and geo-visualization. 
  • 3.4K
  • 22 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Chemical Industry in China
The chemical industry in China is one of China's main manufacturing industries. It valued at around $1.44 trillion in 2014, and China is currently the largest chemicals manufacturing economy in the world. The chemical industry is central to modern China's economy. It uses special methods to alter the structure, composition or synthesis of substances to produce new products, such as steel, plastic, and ethyl. Chemical industry provides building materials for China's infrastructure, including subway, high-speed train, and highway. Prior to 1978, most of the product was produced by the state-owned business, and the share in product outputted by state-owned business had decreased in 2002. The Chinese chemical industry is also one of the world's largest producers of both controlled and non-controlled precursor chemicals used in the Global illicit drug trade, particularly in the Golden Triangle as well as Latin America.
  • 3.4K
  • 26 Oct 2022
Topic Review
High-Temperature Materials in Ammonia/Hydrogen Gas Turbines
This entry reviews the critical role of material selection and design in ensuring efficient performance and safe operation of gas turbine engines fuelled by ammonia–hydrogen. As these energy fuels present unique combustion characteristics in turbine combustors, the identification of suitable materials becomes imperative. Detailed material characterisation is indispensable for discerning defects and degradation routes in turbine components, thereby illuminating avenues for improvement. With elevated turbine inlet temperatures, there is an augmented susceptibility to thermal degradation and mechanical shortcomings, especially in the high-pressure turbine blade—a critical life-determining component.
  • 3.4K
  • 17 Oct 2023
Topic Review
Concentration Cells Corrosion
In marine environments, microbial attacks on metallic materials result in microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC), which could cause severe safety accidents and high economic losses. To date, MIC of a number of metallic materials ranging from common steels to corrosion-resistant ferrous alloys has been reported. The MIC process has been explained based on (1) bio-catalyzed oxygen reduction; (2) kinetics alternation of the corrosion process by increasing the mass transport of the reactants and products; (3) production of corrosive substances; and (4) generation of auxiliary cathodic reactants.
  • 3.4K
  • 16 Sep 2022
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