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Topic Review
Stage Theory
Stage theories are based on the idea that elements in systems move through a pattern of distinct stages over time and that these stages can be described based on their distinguishing characteristics. Specifically, stages in cognitive development have a constant order of succession, later stages integrate the achievements of earlier stages, and each is characterized by a particular type of structure of mental processes which is specific to it. The time of appearance may vary to a certain extent depending upon environmental conditions. "Stage theory" can also be applied beyond psychology to describe phenomena more generally where multiple phases lead to an outcome. The term "stage theory" can thus be applied to various scientific, sociological and business disciplines. In these contexts, stages may not be as rigidly defined, and it is possible for individuals within the multi-stage process to revert to earlier stages or skip some stages entirely.
  • 8.5K
  • 02 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Broadcast Programming
Television scheduling strategies are employed to give programs the best possible chance of attracting and retaining an audience. They are used to deliver programs to audiences when they are most likely to want to watch them and deliver audiences to advertisers in the composition that makes their advertising most likely to be effective. Digitally based broadcast programming mechanisms are known as electronic program guides (EPG). At a micro level, scheduling is the minute planning of the transmission; what to broadcast and when, ensuring an adequate or maximum utilization of airtime.
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  • 28 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Soil Bioremediation
Petroleum hydrocarbons, heavy metals and agricultural pesticides have mutagenic, carcinogenic, immunotoxic and teratogenic effects and cause drastic changes in soil physicochemical and microbiological characteristics, thereby representing a serious danger to health and environment. Therefore, soil pollution urgently requires the application of a series of physicochemical and biological techniques and treatments to minimize the extent of damage. Among them, bioremediation has been shown to be an alternative that can offer an economically viable way to restore polluted areas.
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  • 27 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Lignosulfonates
Lignosulfonates are biobased surfactants and specialty chemicals, which are usually produced as a byproduct during sulfite pulping of wood. They are the technical lignin that is, by far, the most commercially traded and are hence vital for replacing non‑renewable and fossil‑based chemicals. Due to their prominent use as plasticizers, dispersants, and stabilizers, the physicochemical properties of lignosulfonates play a key role in determining their end‑use and performance. Their chemical composition and structure are inherently linked to the characteristic behavior of lignosulfonates. This entry hence outlines the fundamental chemistry of lignosulfonates, while discussing the following physicochemical properties: · Solubility in different solvents · Conformation and shape in aqueous solution · Self-association and agglomeration in aqueous solution · Precipitation · Adsorption at surfaces and interfaces
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  • 05 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Hyperspectral Remote Sensing
Hyperspectral imaging is an incorporation of the modern imaging system and traditional spectroscopy technology. Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) hyperspectral imaging techniques have recently emerged as a valuable tool in agricultural remote sensing, with tremendous promise for many application such as weed detection and species separation
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  • 21 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Ingredients of Moisturizers
Moisturizers are one of the most widely used preparations in cosmetics and have been extensively used to soften the skin for consumers. Moisturizers work effectively in combating dry skin which may cause pain, tightness, itch, stinging, and/or tingling. Knowing the characteristics and interactions of active ingredients with the skin will allow for better utilization of available moisturizers.
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  • 11 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Thermal Stability of Structural Materials
Thermal stability determines the material ability of retaining its properties at required temperatures over extended service time. In addition to temperature and time, thermal stability is affected by load conditions and environmental conditions.
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  • 20 Aug 2020
Topic Review
Methods of Residual Stress Measurement
This entry introduces several commonly used residual stress measurement methods.
  • 8.5K
  • 01 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Occupational Stress
Occupational stress is psychological stress related to one's job. Occupational stress refers to a chronic condition. Occupational stress can be managed by understanding what the stressful conditions at work are and taking steps to remediate those conditions. Occupational stress can occur when workers do not feel supported by supervisors or coworkers, feel as if they have little control over the work they perform, or find that their efforts on the job are incommensurate with the job's rewards. Occupational stress is a concern for both employees and employers because stressful job conditions are related to employees' emotional well-being, physical health, and job performance. A landmark study conducted by the World Health Organization and the International Labour Organization found that exposure to long working hours, which are theorized to operate through increased psycho-social occupational stress, is the occupational risk factor with the largest attributable burden of disease, according to these official estimates causing an estimated 745,000 workers to die from ischemic heart disease and stroke events in 2016. A number of disciplines within psychology are concerned with occupational stress including occupational health psychology, human factors and ergonomics, epidemiology, occupational medicine, sociology, industrial and organizational psychology, and industrial engineering.
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  • 30 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Development Communication Policy Science
Development communication policy sciences is the study of policy issues related to development communications. These two branches of social sciences are regarded as distinct and mutually exclusive areas of study but are said to be inextricably linked. According to Nora C. Quebral (2012), the University of the Philippines Los Baños defines Development Communication as the interaction of two social process—development and communication—in any given environment. Quebral, being the "mother of development communication", initially articulated that, in 1971, Development Communication was tentatively defined as "the art and science of human communication applied to the speedy transformation of a country and the mass of its people from poverty to a dynamic state of economic growth that makes possible greater social equality and larger fulfillment of the human potential" (p. 3). Gonzales (no date) defines development as a "quest for an improved quality of life for all" and communication is used to facilitate changes in people and society so that their full potential will be realised. Grounded on the mentioned basic meanings of development and communication, development communication is defined as "the use of communication in development work". Guru (1997) adds that development communication provides a conceptual and practical framework which is meant to accelerate the process of development in all spheres of human life. It is also meant to break the wall of ignorance, thus, breaking the bonds of poverty and oppression. In 1993, Alexander Flor suggested to refine the definition of development communication including the perspective of cybernetics and general systems theory. In 1995, Alexander Flor claimed development communication as the Fifth Theory of the Press. According to the author, it is the suitable system given "the social and political structures" of the Third World and its present universal environment. In UNESCO's approaches to development communication, Jan Servaes cited "while communication on its own will not bring about change and development, neither will change happen without development communication. We need to integrate all our efforts". Flor & Ongkiko (1998) describe development communication in the book titled 'Introduction to Development Communication' as purposive as it primarily uses communication not merely to give information but practically to influence the people- the receivers of information. Nair (1993) adds that development communication brings change, education and inspiration toward development. In 2001, Quebral redefined development communication as the "art and science of human communication linked to a society's planned transformation from a state of poverty to one of dynamic socio-economic growth that makes for greater equity and the larger unfolding of individual potential". The World Bank views development communication as the "integration of strategic communication in development projects" based on a clear understanding of indigenous realities. In 2006, Bassette defined development communication as a "planned and systematic application of communication resources, channels, approaches and strategies to support the goals of socio–economic, political and cultural development". In 2007, the Rome Consensus gave this definition: "Communication for Development is a social process based on dialogue using a broad range of tools and methods. It is also about seeking change at different levels including listening, building trust, sharing knowledge and skills, building policies, debating and learning for sustained and meaningful change. It is not public relations or corporate communication." According to Dr. Florangel Rosario-Braid, a communication expert in the Philippines, development communication is defined as a "purposive approach to communication" that intends to bring about social and economic change in the lives of the greatest number of the population. Braid says Development Communication involves three key elements: (1) Communication involves people's participation, (2) Stakeholders are in active dialogue and consultation, (3) End goal should be to uphold the rights and needs of the people and to achieve "self-reliance and autonomy". Human perspectives of development come into consciousness through communication whereby social reality is negotiated culturally and politically. Communication encompasses all levels of development in society and development initiatives like in health, agriculture, family planning, etc. It is a tool for mitigating global frontiers, contrasts, and divisions and landscaping structural intricacies and dynamic transformations in this sphere—the evidences of change and their social evolution. The Communication Initiative Network defines communication in models of development. To study communication is no less than one way to study policy-making. Communication about development ensures the sustained attention to the issues and which in turn is necessary in getting the essential commitment from world leaders and the wider public to give meaning to the process. The purpose of development communication is to support sustainable change in development operations by engaging key stakeholders, specifically, to: (a) establish conducive environments for assessing risks and opportunities; (b) disseminate information [to generate knowledge, p. 14]; (c) induce behavior and social change. Communicating "development" is framed within economic growth under the Western-centric modernization for underdeveloped countries using traditional vertical (top-down), linear, one-way Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver model based on Lasswell's 1948 communication theory as monologic, persuasive information and message transfer/dissemination/diffusion or selling of ideas through mass media (e.g., advertisements, social marketing). This dominant paradigm which was opposed by the political-economic framework of dependency is in part abandoned and has taken the perspectives of "participation", "empowerment", and socio-cultural "multiplicity" for sustainable or long-term economic growth stipulated by the Millennium Development Goals. Communication is underscored for meaningful participation using horizontal, two-way (dialogic/interactive) communication principles and practices to facilitate stakeholders' engagement throughout the development process. These are captured by the 17 Global Goals to 2030 for sustainable development through social progress. Development communication as a field is defined by: (1) World Bank as "an interdisciplinary field based on empirical research that helps to build consensus while it facilitates the sharing of knowledge to achieve positive change in development initiatives. It is not only about effective dissemination of information but also about using empirical research and two-way communication among stakeholders" and key management tool in assessing socio-political risks and opportunities; and (2) First World Congress of Communication for Development in Rome on October 2006 as "a social process based on dialog using a broad range of tools and methods. It is also about seeking change at different levels, including listening, building trust, sharing knowledge and skills, building policies, debating, and learning for sustained and meaningful change. It is not public relations or corporate communication". Participation refers to people's involvement from social movement and project-based perspectives which could be passive (informed), consultative (provides feedback), functional (takes part in discussion and analysis by horizontal communication), and empowered (equal partners with external professionals in decision-making) along the ladder to change. To move into sustainability, change in people's beliefs and practices take place. However, "...change cannot occur without communication". Development communication accommodates three pillars of sustainable development: (1) ecological; (2) economic; and (3) social issues. In addition, Paolo Mefalopulos of the World Bank, believes that a four-phase methodological framework can help formulate appropriate communication strategies in development communication through (1) research, often referred to as communication-based assessment, or CBA; (2) inputs for the strategy design; (3) production of the materials and implementation of the planned activities; and (4) evaluation. Social, cultural, economic, political, technological and environmental issues and their utterances (also known as "advocacies") in the form of gender concerns, capitalism (e.g., welfare capitalism), marginalization (e.g., social welfare development), poverty, health care, climate change versus sustainable development, and social innovation are brought to public knowledge, and to a consensus for action on the interests, needs and capacities of all concerned through development communication. It also provides stakeholders access to national and local development goals and plans in a communication system where they can communicate horizontally and vertically to coordinate for resource and human development, more so to promote equal opportunities for social welfare, to seek social change involving innovations, and a higher quality of life and values of society. It is a vital part of the political and policy processes. The interface of development communication and policy sciences is the common ground for social and political actions such as reforms in order to: (1) blur discriminatory tensions, (2) reckon the benefit of change, and (3) configure disarrays of allocating equities between the government, corporations, and social sectors. They strengthen the basic framework of management sciences by adding much needed components. Policies articulate directions for their mobilization and regulatory mechanisms since it is set to be anticipatory or forward-looking that is, problems have been envisioned (predicted) at vantage points (strategic) so countermeasures can have minimal consequences. 'Legitimacy' of policies can be defined in terms of their (a) effectiveness and (b) relevance in the real world to address the multidimensional and complex problems. The policy sciences study the process of deciding or choosing and evaluate the relevance of available knowledge for the solution of particular problems. When policy scientists are concerned with government, law, and political mobilization, they focus on particular decisions. Policy scientists also study the choosing process of nongovernmental organizations and individuals and consider the significance of the current stock of knowledge for specific issues. According to Hale (2011), the central aim of policy sciences is to resolve problems [in the service of human dignity] and the diverse human, historical, and contextual element in public policy-making. This is a reiteration of the Lasswellian maxim on public policy in the following key elements: "contextual"; "problem-oriented"; "multi-method inquiry" or diverse empirical methods; "political"; "normative, welfare-oriented" in the case of social policy goals; and posing "interdisciplinarity" or moving between humanities and social sciences. Policy sciences improve decision-making by reinforcing and supporting human dignity to elide the blinders of instrumental reason by addressing the manifold of human experience. According to Laswell (1971), an adequate strategy of problem solving in policy sciences encompasses five intellectual tasks. These five tasks are performed at varying levels of insight and understanding: goal clarification; trend description; analysis of conditions; projection of developments; and invention, evaluation, and selection of alternatives. With this, the policy sciences integrate philosophy, history, science, prophecy, and commitment. Policy is the "plan of action" for administration, management and control of resources. The Evidence-Based Policy in Development Network and Overseas Development Institute provide a mirror of policy sciences on development by information exchange between stakeholders. Policy-making involves analysis of data and options to determine the "best" possible solution to the problem, weighing between welfare, health, expediency, efficiency, justice, and rights, among other things at par with understanding value judgments. The Lessons Database by the Independent Evaluation Department of the Asian Development Bank frames the rigors of balancing a variety of factors in the context of organizational and operational effectiveness. Prioritization towards sustainable development is actually based on estimates of economic and social costs, interests and power structures, scientific information, and ethics. Nair (1987) emphasized that communication can be utilized in providing service to the people. It is essential for mobilizing initiatives and providing information required for action in all fields of development such as agriculture, health and family planning, education and religion. However, MacBride Commission (1980) highlighted that adequate financing must be given to development projects. Without funds, programs of governments will not succeed. Apart from funding, there are other equally important aspects in implementing projects. Communication for Asia (CFA) shares their 5I's methodology in development communication: Inform, Instruct, Inspiration, Insist and Involvement. The 5I's means informing all stakeholders of concerns and priorities to achieve collaboration and cooperation of everyone in mutually sharing expertise and talents in serving the people. The term "policy sciences" was originally coined by Harold D. Lasswell and Daniel Lerner as an approach to understanding and solving problems that draw on and contribute to all fields of knowledge. It is a set of procedures in an integrated and comprehensive form to help clarify and secure common interests. The term "policy sciences" is in plural form to emphasize its interdisciplinary nature. Fraser (1998) elucidated the purposive nature of both development communication and policy sciences, thus intertwining their functions. Policies will greatly aid in the successful implementation of projects as they provide directions on what necessary steps to take. In the work of Alexander Flor, the term "development communication policy sciences" was not used as a whole phrase but was mentioned separately as development communication and policy sciences. He discussed the term according to the linkage of development communication and policy sciences as fundamental and traceable even before either area was afforded the status of science. Communication policy research evolved from the outset as a multi-disciplinary field and domain of various academic disciplines from sociology and political science to law and economics, resulting in the coverage of a myriad of multi-faceted topics. The choice of subjects in communication policy research is affected by sociocultural, political, economic and technological forces that determine the overall framework for communication policy and regulation as well as by the many regulatory objectives in communication. The place of communication in the development process was given a boost when Lerner (1958) wrote his famous treatise 'The Passing of the Traditional Society', in which he acknowledged that mass media growth was one of the three phases of democratic political development (Moemeka, n.d). He pointed out that the mass media had the power to create opportunity for empathy which 'disciplined western men in skills that spell modernity'. Development communication is basically communication for social change to achieve one's potential. This is embodied in Nora Quebral's (1971) definition which states that development communication is the "art and science of human communication applied to the speedy transformation of a country and the mass of its people from poverty to a dynamic state of economic growth that makes possible greater social equity and the larger fulfillment of the human potential." Quebral (2001) redefined development communication to "the art and science of human communication linked to a society's planned transformation from a state of poverty to one of dynamic socio-economic growth that makes for greater equity and the larger unfolding of individual potential." McKee (1992) emphasized that people's involvement is the key to the desired changes. Unless people see themselves as the driving force of their own development, no amount of investment or provision of technology and inputs will bring about any lasting improvements in their living standards. An important and founding impetus for communication policy research came from Harold D. Lasswell, who also figures prominently as a founding father of communication science and policy science (Rogers 1994). He argued that future advances in communication study depended upon the development of a policy focus and upon being a third voice supplying 'a competing appraisal of the images spread by self-serving sources' (Lasswell 1972:307). The conception of the policy sciences on the other hand, is more refined and extended today than at any time in the colorful history of man (Lasswell, 1971). Giving a working definition for it, he noted that policy sciences are concerned with knowledge of and in the decision processes of the public and civic order.
  • 8.4K
  • 19 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Straight-Six Engine
The straight-six engine (also referred to as an inline-six engine; abbreviated I6 or L6) is an internal combustion engine, with six cylinders mounted in a straight line along the crankcase with all the pistons driving a common crankshaft (straight engine). The bank of cylinders may be oriented at any angle, and where the bank is inclined away from the vertical, the engine is sometimes called a slant-six (although this is also a Chrysler-specific design). The straight-six layout is the simplest engine layout that possesses both primary and secondary mechanical engine balance, resulting in much less vibration than engines with fewer cylinders.
  • 8.4K
  • 15 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Clay Bricks
Clay bricks are extensively used as building material worldwide. Natural soil deposits are in constant reduction due to the frequent use of clay to manufacture bricks. About 1600 billion bricks are produced annually by the consumption of millions of tons of natural resources.
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  • 18 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Armor-Piercing Shell
An armor-piercing shell, armour-piercing shell in Commonwealth English, AP for short, is a type of ammunition designed to penetrate armor. From the 1860s to 1950s, a major application of armor-piercing projectiles was to defeat the thick armor carried on many warships and cause damage to the lightly-armored interior. From the 1920s onwards, armor-piercing weapons were required for anti-tank missions. AP rounds smaller than 20 mm are typically known as "armor-piercing ammunition", and are intended for lightly-armored targets such as body armor, bulletproof glass and light armored vehicles. The AP shell is now seldom used in naval warfare, as modern warships have little or no armor protection. In the anti-tank role, as tank armor improved during World War II newer designs began to use a smaller but dense penetrating body within a larger shell. These lightweight shells were fired at very high muzzle velocity and retained that speed and the associated penetrating power over longer distances. An armor-piercing shell must withstand the shock of punching through armor plating. Shells designed for this purpose have a greatly strengthened body with a specially hardened and shaped nose. One common addition to later shells is the use of a softer ring or cap of metal on the nose known as a penetrating cap. This lowers the initial shock of impact to prevent the rigid shell from shattering, as well as aiding the contact between the target armor and the nose of the penetrator to prevent the shell from bouncing off in glancing shots. Ideally, these caps have a blunt profile, which led to the use of a further thin aerodynamic cap to improve long-range ballistics. AP shells may contain a small explosive charge known as a "bursting charge". Some smaller-caliber AP shells have an inert filling or an incendiary charge in place of the bursting charge. Designs using newer technologies no longer look like the classic artillery shell and have displaced it. Instead the penetrator is a long rod of dense material like tungsten or depleted uranium (DU) that further improves the terminal ballistics. Whether these modern designs are considered to be AP rounds depends on the definition. Accordingly reference sources vary in whether they include or exclude them.
  • 8.4K
  • 02 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Ballistic Missile
A ballistic missile follows a ballistic trajectory to deliver one or more warheads on a predetermined target. These weapons are only guided during relatively brief periods of flight—most of their trajectory is unpowered, being governed by gravity and air resistance if in the atmosphere. Shorter range ballistic missiles stay within the Earth's atmosphere, while longer-ranged intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), are launched on a sub-orbital flight trajectory and spend most of their flight out of the atmosphere. These weapons are in a distinct category from cruise missiles, which are aerodynamically guided in powered flight.
  • 8.4K
  • 05 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Smart Textile Materials
In the last three decades, the development of new kinds of textiles, so-called smart and interactive textiles, has continued unabated. Smart textile materials and their applications are set to drastically boom as the demand for these textiles have been increasing with the emergence of new fibers, new fabrics, and innovative processing technologies. Moreover, people are eagerly demanding washable, flexible, lightweight, and robust e-textiles. These features depend on the properties of the starting material, the post-treatment, and the integration techniques. In this work, a comprehensive review has been conducted on the integration techniques of conductive materials in and onto a textile structure. The review showed that an e-textile can be developed by applying a conductive component on the surface of a textile substrate via plating, printing, coating, and other surface techniques, or by producing a textile substrate from metals and inherently conductive polymers via the creation of fibers and construction of yarns and fabrics with these. In addition, conductive filament fibers or yarns can be also integrated into conventional textile substrates during the fabrication like braiding, weaving, and knitting or as a post-fabrication of the textile fabric via embroidering. Additionally, layer-by-layer 3D printing of the entire smart textile components is possible, and the concept of 4D could play a significant role in advancing the status of smart textiles to a new level.
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  • 29 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Microalgae Cell Disruption Methods
Microalgae are unicellular or simple multicellular photosynthetic microorganisms, which can normally be found in aquatic environments such as freshwater, seawater, or hypersaline lakes. These organisms can be eukaryotic or prokaryotic, the latter being the cyanobacteria, which are commonly referred to as microalgae.  The nature of the cell wall of a given microalgae species can vary, making it easier or harder to access its valuable contents. The rigidity of the cell wall can be provided, for example, by high levels of polysaccharides in the cell wall structure, such as glucose and mannose, present in Chlorella zofingiensis, or by complex sugars composition such as arabinose, galactose, rhamnose, mannose and xylose, as found in Tetraselmis suecia and T. striata. Algaenan or sporopollein is another extremely resistant biopolymer, a non-hydrolyzable biopolymer, composed of long ω-hydroxy fatty acids chains linked by several types of chemical bond, which confer its rigid properties, and that can be found in some species such as Chlorella spp., Nannochloropsis galditana and Scenedesmus spp. Arthorspira spp. cell wals contain peptidoglycan, being less rigid and, consequently, more susceptible to degradation. Thus, several methods can be applied to breakdown such molecules that, being part of the cell wall, present different level of rigidity and confer them protection against environment factors. The cell wall disruption methods include physical, chemical, enzymatic approaches. In this entry, it will be presented a brief description of these methods.
  • 8.4K
  • 29 Jan 2021
Topic Review
HepG2 Cell Line
HepG2 is a hepatoblastoma cell line. It is used in a wide range of studies: a model of hepatoblastoma (HB) and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), cytotoxicity testing and the identification of drug metabolic pathways on the liver. 
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  • 20 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Sati (Buddhism)
Sati (from Pali: सति; Sanskrit: स्मृति smṛti) is mindfulness or awareness, a spiritual or psychological faculty (indriya) that forms an essential part of Buddhist practice. It is the first factor of the Seven Factors of Enlightenment. "Correct" or "right" mindfulness (Pali: sammā-sati, Sanskrit samyak-smṛti) is the seventh element of the Noble Eightfold Path.
  • 8.4K
  • 25 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Microbial Hydrolysis in Anaerobic Digestion
Hydrolysis generally refers to the breakdown of polymeric substance into their monomeric building blocks. In the case of microbial hydrolysis, the breakdown is catalyzed by extracellular enzymes produced by hydrolytic microorganisms. This article focusses on microbial hydrolysis within the process of anerobic digestion including the relevant metabolites, microbial consortia and the role of hydrolysis in anerobic digestion systems. 
  • 8.4K
  • 17 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Fungal Metabolism
Fungi metabolism consists on a series of reactions that results in the biosynthesis of a huge number of compounds. These compounds area usually divided into primary and secondary metabolites. Primary metabolism is common to several species and usually produces compounds with the function of assuring fungi growth and development. Secondary metabolism refers to the production of compounds that are not indispensable during fungi development. Secondary metabolites are commonly referred as "natural products"  and have been extensively utilized in the pharmaceutical, cosmetics and food industry. Fungal metabolism is an excellent source of compounds related to the improvement of human health, and a discussion on this application is presented below.
  • 8.3K
  • 18 Nov 2021
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