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Topic Review
Plant-Based Diets Reducing the Main RVO Risk Factors
Retinal vein occlusion (RVO) is the second most common retinal disorder. In comparison to diabetic retinopathy or age-related macular degeneration, RVO is usually an unexpected event that carries a greater psychological impact.
  • 489
  • 26 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Advancing Glaucoma Care
Glaucoma, the leading cause of irreversible blindness worldwide, comprises a group of progressive optic neuropathies requiring early detection and lifelong treatment to preserve vision. Artificial intelligence (AI) technologies are now demonstrating transformative potential across the spectrum of clinical glaucoma care.
  • 488
  • 30 Jan 2024
Topic Review
Biofilms in Ocular Infection
Fungi represent a very important cause of microbial eye infections, especially in tropical and developing countries, as they could cause sight-threating disease, such as keratitis and ocular candidiasis, resulting in irreversible vision loss. Candida species are among the most frequent microorganisms associated with fungal infection. Although Candida albicans is still the most frequently detected organism among Candida subspecies, an important increase in non-albicans species has been reported. Mycotic infections often represent an important diagnostic-clinical problem due to the difficulties in performing the diagnosis and a therapeutic problem due to the limited availability of commercial drugs and the difficult penetration of antifungals into ocular tissues. The ability to form biofilms is another feature that makes Candida a dangerous pathogen.
  • 487
  • 16 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Retinal Prothesis
Retinal prosthetics show promise in restoring vision for individuals with retinal diseases. Technological advancements have led to various implant designs, expanding possibilities for enhancing visual acuity. A research explores pre-clinical and clinical studies, engineering aspects, safety, adverse events, and rehabilitation programs. The debate over alternative therapies is addressed, comparing retinal prostheses to cell-based and gene-based therapies and optogenetics. Advancements in wireless technology and artificial intelligence are discussed. The retinal structure and function are outlined, emphasizing the importance of different retinal layers. Retinal physiology poses challenges for prosthetic devices, requiring selective stimulation for optimal outcomes. Visual prosthetics aim to restore vision by replicating retinal ganglion cells' electrical signals. Two mechanisms are used: (1) external camera systems process images to deliver electrical impulses via an implanted microelectrode array, as seen in the ARGUS II prosthetic, and (2) photodiode arrays directly convert light energy to electrical signals.
  • 487
  • 18 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Ocular Side Effects of Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors
In the diverse arsenal of therapeutic tools against cancer, immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) have emerged as a new beacon of hope. By inhibiting the immune response’s “OFF” signal, ICIs activate the body’s immune system to attack cancerous growths. Eight immune checkpoint inhibitors have been approved by the FDA for their proven efficacy against multiple cancer types. Per their mechanism of action, ICIs produce a series of well-documented side effects secondary to the induction of immune activation commonly referred to as “immune-related adverse events” (IRAEs). These can affect any organ system, including the eye. Although rare, ocular IRAEs can have debilitating effects on patients’ quality of life and be sight-threatening.
  • 486
  • 17 Feb 2024
Topic Review
Multimodal Ophthalmic Imaging in Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 7
SCA7, from an ophthalmological point of view, can be assessed through numerous multimodal imaging techniques to evaluate and manage the follow-up of patients. Visual acuity is a fundamental parameter that should be monitored, and spectral domain optical coherence tomography (SDOCT), which is a rapid and non-invasive method, should be routinely performed to evaluate ophthalmic disease progression over time. Additional exams, including NIR imaging, can indicate photoreceptor loss and disruption of the RPE that are not readily evident with color fundus photography (CFP). 
  • 485
  • 19 Jan 2024
Topic Review
Clinical Considerations for Retinal Prostheses
A retinal prosthesis, also known as a bionic eye or artificial retina, is a medical device designed to restore vision in individuals with severe vision loss or blindness caused by conditions such as retinitis pigmentosa or age-related macular degeneration (AMD). It works by bypassing the damaged photoreceptor cells and directly stimulating the remaining healthy retinal cells or the optic nerve. In recent years, numerous types of devices such as epiretinal, subretinal, and suprachoroidal ones have been developed, but the Argus II is the only FDA-approved retinal prosthesis in North America for now. Although retinal protheses show great potential, ongoing research and advancements in this field are nonetheless necessary to refine the technology and expand its applications in the future.
  • 477
  • 28 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Diagnostic Imaging for Infectious Keratitis
Infectious keratitis (IK) is among the top five leading causes of blindness globally. Early diagnosis is needed to guide appropriate therapy to avoid complications such as vision impairment and blindness. Slit lamp microscopy and culture of corneal scrapes are key to diagnosing IK. Slit lamp photography was transformed when digital cameras and smartphones were invented. The digital camera or smartphone camera sensor’s resolution, the resolution of the slit lamp, and the focal length of the smartphone camera system are key to a high-quality slit lamp image. Alternative diagnostic tools include imaging, such as optical coherence tomography (OCT) and in vivo confocal microscopy (IVCM). OCT’s advantage is its ability to accurately determine the depth and extent of the corneal ulceration, infiltrates, and haze; therefore characterizing the severity and progression of the infection. However, OCT is not a preferred choice in the diagnostic tool package for infectious keratitis. Rather, IVCM is a great aid in diagnosing fungal and Acanthamoeba keratitis with overall sensitivities of 66–74% and 80–100% and specificity of 78–100% and 84–100%, respectively. Deep learning (DL) models have been shown to be promising aids for diagnosing IK via image recognition. 
  • 474
  • 17 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Ocular Complications of COVID-19
Coronaviruses are a large family of viruses that can cause illness in animals and humans. They are named for their crown-like spikes on their surface. Coronaviruses can cause a range of illnesses, from the common cold to more severe diseases such as severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), and COVID-19. Coronaviruses are spread mainly through respiratory droplets when an infected person coughs, sneezes, talks, or breathes. They can also be spread by touching a surface contaminated with the virus and then touching your mouth, nose, or eyes.
  • 449
  • 14 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Suprachoroidal Injections for Inflammatory and Neoplasic Pathologies
Ocular inflammatory diseases, including uveitis, involve inflammation within the eye and can affect various parts of the eye, leading to discomfort, vision impairment, and potentially serious complications if left untreated. The causes of uveitis and ocular inflammatory diseases can vary, including autoimmune disorders, infections (such as viral, bacterial, or fungal), systemic diseases (such as rheumatoid arthritis or inflammatory bowel disease), or sometimes the cause may remain unknown (idiopathic). Symptoms of uveitis and ocular inflammatory diseases may include eye redness, pain, light sensitivity, blurred vision, floaters, and in severe cases, vision loss. Another pathology affecting the middle layer of the eye is uveal melanoma, which is the most common primary intraocular malignancy in adults that develops in the uveal melanocytes. Since these are serious and potentially life-altering diseases, proper diagnosis, treatment, and ongoing monitoring are crucial to effectively manage these conditions and maintain ocular health. In this regard, suprachoroidal injections is being investigated as a new potential treatment options for these conditions. 
  • 448
  • 04 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Insulin-like Growth Factor (IGF) System in Corneal Epithelium
The corneal epithelium, comprising three layers of cells, represents the outermost portion of the eye and functions as a vital protective barrier while concurrently serving as a critical refractive structure. Maintaining its homeostasis involves a complex regenerative process facilitated by the functions of the lacrimal gland, tear film, and corneal nerves. Crucially, limbal epithelial stem cells located in the limbus (transitional zone between the cornea and the conjunctiva) are instrumental for the corneal epithelium integrity by replenishing and renewing cells. Re-epithelialization failure results in persistent defects, often associated with various ocular conditions including diabetic keratopathy. The insulin-like growth factor (IGF) system is a sophisticated network of insulin and other proteins essential for numerous physiological processes.
  • 447
  • 04 Mar 2024
Topic Review
Suprachoroidal Injections for Vision-Altering Diseases
Multiple eye pathologies have serious and vision-altering effects that can greatly affect the patients' quality of life. Notably, retinal detachment occurs when the retina, which is the thin layer of tissue at the back of the eye responsible for detecting light and transmitting visual signals to the brain, becomes separated from its underlying supportive layers. This separation can disrupt the normal flow of nutrients and oxygen to the retina, leading to vision loss if not promptly treated. Glaucoma, on the other hand, refers to a group of eye conditions characterized by damage to the optic nerve, which is responsible for transmitting visual information from the eye to the brain. This damage is often associated with increased intraocular pressure (IOP) due to a buildup of fluid within the eye. Glaucoma is typically a progressive condition that can lead to permanent vision loss if left untreated. Finally, myopia is a common vision problem worldwide, and its prevalence has been increasing in recent years, especially in urbanized and highly educated populations. It affects the ability to see distant objects clearly. Suprachoroidal injection thus offers a novel approach to the treatment of these conditions.
  • 440
  • 04 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Canaloplasty in Corticosteroid-Induced Glaucoma
Canaloplasty should be considered as a possible alternative to filtering surgery in this form of glaucoma when medical therapy is not sufficient to maintain the intraocular pressure (IOP) within reasonable limits.
  • 434
  • 18 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Advances in Diagnosis Approaches in Fungal Keratitis
Fungal keratitis represents a potentially sight-threatening infection associated with poor prognosis, as well as financial burden. Novel diagnostic methods include polymerase-chain-reaction (PCR)-based approaches, metagenomic deep sequences, in vivo confocal microscopy, and antifungal susceptibility testing. The ideal therapeutic approaches and outcomes have been widely discussed, with early therapy being of the utmost importance for the preservation of visual acuity, minimizing corneal damage and reducing the scar size. However, combination therapy can be more efficacious compared to monotherapy. Understanding the pathogenesis, early diagnosis, and prevention strategies can be of great importance. 
  • 434
  • 18 Feb 2024
Topic Review
Measurement of Retrobulbar Blood Flow and Vascular Reactivity
Abnormal retrobulbar hemodynamics have been linked to the development of various ocular diseases, including glaucoma, age-related macular degeneration, and diabetic retinopathy. Additionally, altered retrobulbar blood flow has been observed in patients with severe cardiovascular diseases, including carotid artery occlusion, stroke, heart failure, and acute coronary syndrome.
  • 433
  • 05 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Engineering of Retinal Prostheses
Retinal prostheses depend on specific outcomes and engineering constraints. These include effective electrical stimulation by direct contact with the retina, achieving high-resolution images through miniaturization, selective targeting of retinal cells, and customization with bidirectional functionality. Clinical results of retinal prostheses have shown limited visual resolution, posing challenges for object recognition and visual acuity. The pixel size of microelectrodes in prostheses limits acuity, indicating smaller pixels may improve resolution. Physiologically, smaller, densely packed electrodes are desired to stimulate individual retinal neurons. However, miniaturization increases charge density, necessitating material innovations to maintain safe stimulation. Considerations of biocompatibility and manufacturability are crucial. Retinal prostheses' success hinges on meeting key outcomes: effective stimulation, high-resolution images, selective targeting, and customization. These design considerations shape their manufacturing and market adoption, explored here for a comprehensive understanding.
  • 426
  • 18 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide Family Members in Diabetic Keratopathy
Diabetic keratopathy (DK) is a common ocular complication of diabetes, characterized by alteration of the normal wound-healing mechanism, reduction of epithelial hemidesmosomes, disruption of the basement membrane, impaired barrier function, reduced corneal sensitivity, corneal ulcers, and corneal edema.
  • 425
  • 28 Feb 2024
Topic Review
DNA Nanostructures for Ophthalmic Drug Delivery
Nanomedicine in gel or particle formation holds considerable potential for enhancing passive and active targeting within ocular drug delivery systems. The complex barriers of the eye, exemplified by the intricate network of closely connected tissue structures, pose significant challenges for drug administration. Leveraging the capability of engineered nanomedicine offers a promising approach to enhance drug penetration, particularly through active targeting agents such as protein peptides and aptamers, which facilitate targeted release and heightened bioavailability. Simultaneously, DNA carriers have emerged as a cutting-edge class of active-targeting structures, connecting active targeting agents and illustrating their potential in ocular drug delivery applications.
  • 417
  • 26 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Molecular Basis of Diabetic Retinopathy
Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a growing problem nowadays, and diabetic retinopathy (DR) is its predominant complication. 
  • 416
  • 05 Aug 2024
Topic Review
Adipose-Tissue-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Based Therapy for Retinal Diseases
With the rapid development of stem cell research in modern times, stem cell-based therapy has opened a new era of tissue regeneration, becoming one of the most promising strategies for currently untreatable retinal diseases. Among the various sources of stem cells, adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells (ADSCs) have emerged as a promising therapeutic modality due to their characteristics and multiple functions, which include immunoregulation, anti-apoptosis of neurons, cytokine and growth factor secretion, and antioxidative activities. ADSCs can facilitate the replacement of dying cells, promote tissue remodeling and regeneration, and support the survival and growth of retinal cells. 
  • 410
  • 17 Nov 2023
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