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Topic Review
Dengue Vaccine Development
Approximately 100–400 million people from more than 100 countries in the tropical and subtropical world are affected by dengue infections. Recent scientific breakthroughs have brought new insights into novel strategies for the production of dengue antivirals and vaccines. The search for specific dengue inhibitors is expanding, and the mechanisms for evaluating the efficacy of novel drugs are currently established, allowing for expedited translation into human trials. Furthermore, in the aftermath of the only FDA-approved vaccine, Dengvaxia, a safer and more effective dengue vaccine candidate is making its way through the clinical trials. Until an effective licensed vaccine are available, disease monitoring and vector population control will be the mainstays of dengue prevention. In this review, we highlighted recent advances made in the perspectives of efforts made recently also to shed some light on the direction of the dengue vaccine development.
  • 1.0K
  • 29 Mar 2022
Topic Review
COVID-19 and Human Herpesviruses Reactivations
There are several human herpesviruses. A common characteristic of infection by these viruses is latency, by which the virus assumes a non-replicative state, subverting the attentions of the host’s immune response. In immunocompetent hosts, herpesviruses are immunologically controlled. In situations where immunological control is lost, herpesviruses can reactivate and produce clinically apparent disease. It is becoming apparent that COVID-19 or exposure to COVID-19 vaccines can exert several effects on the immune system. The pandemic of COVID-19 shows no sign of abating, with new severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) variants continuing to evolve.
  • 1.0K
  • 02 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Polymyxin/Non-Antibiotic Combinations
The polymyxin/non-antibiotic combinations covered function synergistically by augmenting penetrative damage against the outer membrane causing bacterial lysis. Alternatively, the outer membrane may be permeabilized sufficiently (either by the polymyxin or the adjuvant) for the combination to access the inner membrane, leading to either perforation of the inner membrane (and lysis) or diffusion across the membrane, substantially disrupting vital metabolic pathways (i.e., respiration, DNA replication, cell envelope maintenance) and/or repressing plasmid-mediated polymyxin resistance.
  • 1.0K
  • 09 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Probiotics Supplementation on Infections in Athletes
It is well established that physical activity (PA) can have beneficial effects on the whole human body and strength its immune defenses. In fact, scientific evidence has established that regular PA is effective in the prevention of various chronic diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, cancer, hypertension, obesity, depression, osteoporosis, and premature death. However, the effects of PA can be different depending on its intensity and duration. In fact, during heavy training and competitions, a higher incidence of gastrointestinal (GI) disorders, such as diarrhea and heartburn, and upper respiratory tract infections (URTIs) can occur. This is due to acute post-exercise immune breakdowns and chronic suppression of immune factors, dependent on frequent strenuous exercise. Therefore, reducing these symptoms in athletes becomes a top priority. Evidence shows that probiotics could be useful in reducing the risk of development or the severity of GI or URT infections, but firther research in this field is still needed.
  • 1.0K
  • 20 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Vaccines against Antibiotic Resistance
Despite the great efforts made by researchers and companies to develop new antimicrobial drugs, only a few molecules have been recognized so far as effective antibiotic candidates. In fact, the number of new antimicrobials developed later than the 90s has progressively diminished, and many of them correspond to slight modifications of existing drugs. Apart from the difficulties in developing new effective antimicrobials, the worrying scenario of the antimicrobial resistance (AMR) recalls the urgent need of new strategies to fight the bacterial infections. Among the others, vaccination is a winning solution to the problem of the  AMR, at least in the context of some of the most common pathogenic bacteria.
  • 1.0K
  • 14 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Cytoskeleton during Late Steps of HIV-1 Life Cycle
HIV-1 has evolved a plethora of strategies to overcome the cytoskeletal barrier (i.e., actin and intermediate filaments (AFs and IFs) and microtubules (MTs)) to achieve the viral cycle. HIV-1 modifies cytoskeletal organization and dynamics by acting on associated adaptors and molecular motors to productively fuse, enter, and infect cells and then traffic to the cell surface, where virions assemble and are released to spread infection. The HIV-1 envelope (Env) initiates the cycle by binding to and signaling through its main cell surface receptors (CD4/CCR5/CXCR4) to shape the cytoskeleton for fusion pore formation, which permits viral core entry. Then, the HIV-1 capsid is transported to the nucleus associated with cytoskeleton tracks under the control of specific adaptors/molecular motors, as well as HIV-1 accessory proteins. Furthermore, HIV-1 drives the late stages of the viral cycle by regulating cytoskeleton dynamics to assure viral Pr55Gag expression and transport to the cell surface, where it assembles and buds to mature infectious virions. 
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  • 04 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Photo-Stimuli-Responsive Antibacterial Applications of CuS and Its Nanocomposites
Photo-stimuli-responsive therapeutic nanomaterials have gained widespread attention as frontline materials for biomedical applications. The photoactivation strategies are classified as single-modality (based on either reactive oxygen species (ROS)-based photodynamic therapy (PDT), hyperthermia-based photothermal therapy (PTT)), or dual-modality (which combines PDT and PTT). CuS has excellent photoactivated antibacterial properties and shows promising antibacterial activity when irradiated in the so-called biological window (i.e., NIR region).
  • 1.0K
  • 01 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Minimal Inhibitory Concentration and Its Microbiological Indications
Before targeting an optimal antibiotic therapy, an empirical treatment is administered, and the previous collection of a microbiological sample helps choose the most effective treatment. Among the microbiological results, antibiotic susceptibility testing (AST) is currently based on testing the ability of an antibiotic to inhibit bacterial growth in vitro under standardized experimental conditions. For most infections, classic AST e.g., critical diameter measurement, is sufficient. However, for some antibiotics and/or for some bacterial infections, the determination of the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) value is required. The methods that can be used, their relevance, and their microbiological indications are detailed below. 
  • 1.0K
  • 06 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Diagnosing Staph Infections with VOC Biomarkers
Staphylococci are broadly adaptable and their ability to grow in unique environments has been widely established, but the most common and clinically relevant staphylococcal niche is the skin and mucous membranes of mammals and birds. S. aureus causes severe infections in mammalian tissues and organs, with high morbidities, mortalities, and treatment costs. S. epidermidis is an important human commensal but is also capable of deadly infections. The development of volatile organic compound (VOC) profiles for the detection and identification of pathogens is an area of intensive research, with significant efforts toward establishing breath tests for infections.
  • 1.0K
  • 13 Mar 2023
Topic Review
Sarilumab Administration in COVID-19 Patients
COVID-19 pathogenesis consists of a first viral phase responsible for early symptoms followed by an inflammatory phase, cytokine-mediated, responsible for late-onset manifestations up to ARDS. The dysregulated immune response has an outstanding role in the progression of pulmonary damage in COVID-19. IL-6, through the induction of pro-inflammatory chemokines and cytokines, plays a key role in the development and maintenance of inflammation, acting as a pioneer of the hyperinflammatory condition and cytokine storm in severe COVID-19. Therefore, drugs targeting both IL-6 and IL-6 receptors have been evaluated in order to blunt the abnormal SARS-CoV-2-induced cytokine release. Sarilumab, a high-affinity anti-IL-6 receptor antibody, may represent a promising weapon to treat the fearsome hyperinflammatory phase by improving the outcome of patients with moderate-to-severe COVID-19 pneumonia.
  • 1.0K
  • 20 May 2022
Topic Review
Epigenetic-Mediated Antimicrobial Resistance
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) mechanisms include the horizontal and vertical transfer of resistance genes, gene mutations affecting antibiotic targets, drug influx/efflux strategies, or antibiotic inactivation. Among the common and severely affecting pathogens attributed to AMR development include Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Helicobacter pylori, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, but there are many more.
  • 1.0K
  • 23 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Syndecan-4
Emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants pose threats to vaccination campaigns against COVID-19. Being more transmissible than the original virus, the SARS-CoV-2 B.1.617 lineage, named the Delta variant, swept through the world in 2021. The mutations in the Delta’s spike protein shift the protein towards a net positive electrostatic potential. Compared to the wild-type spike, the Delta one shows a higher affinity towards heparan sulfate proteoglycans than ACE2. Cellular studies showed that syndecan-4, the syndecan isoform abundant in the lung, enhances the transmission of the Delta variant by attaching its mutated spike glycoprotein and facilitating its cellular entry. In addition to the attachment to the polyanionic heparan sulfate chains, the Delta spike’s molecular interactions with syndecan-4 also involve syndecan-4’s cell-binding domain that mediates cell-to-cell adhesion. Exogenously added heparin or syndecan-4 knockdown efficiently blocks the Delta variant’s cellular entry. A profound understanding of syndecan-4-mediated endocytosis enables the development of molecularly targeted yet simple strategies to reduce the Delta variant’s spread.
  • 1.0K
  • 20 Jan 2022
Topic Review
mRNA, Live-Attenuated/Chimeric and VLP-Based Vaccines
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is an enveloped, negative-sense, single-stranded RNA virus causing seasonal infections in a biphasic age distribution, affecting more frequently children until the age of 2 years with a higher frequency across the age spectrum from 6 weeks to 6 months, as well as older adults due to the reduction of immunity. 
  • 1.0K
  • 03 Nov 2023
Topic Review
COVID-19 in the Brain and Nervous System
COVID-19 can spread throughout the central nervous system, impacting the brain and spinal cord, and neurological symptoms could explain this in people infected with long-term infection.
  • 1.0K
  • 29 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Virion Structure of SARS-CoV-2 and Viral Inflammation
COVID-19 is an epidemic infection created by SARS-CoV-2 (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2). SARS-CoV-2 has a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA genome with 29,891 nucleotides and 38% G + C content, encoding 9860 amino acids. Human coronaviral inflammation induces the clinical symptoms of fever, cough, and shortness of breath.
  • 1.0K
  • 25 Nov 2022
Topic Review
COVID-19 Vaccine Approved for Public Use
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak was first reported in Wuhan, China in December 2019, and was found to be caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) which is a novel pleomorphic, positive-stranded RNA virus belonging to the Coronaviridae family. Quickly, it has become a global pandemic, infecting more than 176 million people and causing the death of more than 3.8 million individuals, that we are yet to recover from. Thus, an ongoing quest is being carried out for prophylaxis/therapy to prevent the transition from infection into serious forms of COVID-19.
  • 1.0K
  • 30 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Heterogeneous Adverse Events Associated with mRNA-Based COVID-19 Vaccines
Serious and severe adverse events following mRNA COVID-19 vaccinations are rare. While a definitive causal relationship was not established in most cases, important adverse events associated with post-vaccination included rare and non-fatal myocarditis and pericarditis in younger vaccine recipients, thrombocytopenia, neurological effects such as seizures and orofacial events, skin reactions, and allergic hypersensitivities.
  • 1.0K
  • 26 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Combination Antibody Therapy against Pseudomonas aeruginosa Infections
Despite advances in antimicrobial therapy and even the advent of some effective vaccines, Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) remains a significant cause of infectious disease, primarily due to antibiotic resistance. Although P. aeruginosa is commonly treatable with readily available therapeutics, these therapies are not always efficacious, particularly for certain classes of patients (e.g., cystic fibrosis (CF)) and for drug-resistant strains. Combinations of monoclonal antibodies against different targets and epitopes have demonstrated synergistic efficacy with each other as well as in combination with antimicrobial agents typically used to treat these infections. Such a strategy has reduced the ability of infectious agents to develop resistance. This entry highlights potential targets secreted by P. aeruginosa that future polyclonal antibodies may directed against in order to develop more efficacious treatments against these infections. 
  • 1.0K
  • 06 Jan 2022
Topic Review
FREM1
FREM1 (Fras-related extracellular matrix 1) and its splice variant TILRR (Toll-like interleukin-1 receptor regulator) have been identified as integral components of innate immune systems. The potential involvement of FREM1 in HIV-1 (human immunodeficiency virus 1) acquisition was suggested by a genome-wide SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism) analysis of HIV-1 resistant and susceptible sex workers enrolled in the Pumwani sex worker cohort (PSWC) in Nairobi, Kenya.
  • 1.0K
  • 24 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Host Susceptibility of SARS-CoV-2
The COVID-19 pandemic has caused the death of approximately 6 million people, with a case fatality rate which may be as high as 20% in those over 80 years old. Vaccines have proved to be extremely effective in reducing the damage and hospitalisation caused by this infection, although some patients still need supportive care. As the SARS-CoV-2 virus has continued to evolve, the potential for the virus to escape vaccine and exposure induced immunity remains a threat. In this situation, as at the start of the pandemic when no such vaccines were available, it is important that there exist therapeutics for the treatment of severely ill patients. In addition, comparison with other agents demonstrates that this drug is the most potent of the immune modulators in reducing COVID-19 mortality. As a result, it is now strongly recommended for the treatment of COVID-19 by the WHO.
  • 1.0K
  • 01 Jul 2022
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