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Topic Review
Herpesviruses and Human Cytomegalovirus
Herpesviruses are the causative agents of several diseases. Infections are generally mild or asymptomatic in immunocompetent individuals.  In contrast, herpesvirus infections continue to contribute to significant morbidity and mortality in immunocompromised patients. Few drugs are available for the treatment of human herpesvirus infections, mainly targeting the viral DNA polymerase. Moreover, no successful therapeutic options are available for the Epstein–Barr virus or human herpesvirus 8. Most licensed drugs share the same mechanism of action of targeting the viral polymerase and thus blocking DNA polymerization. Resistances to antiviral drugs have been observed for human cytomegalovirus, herpes simplex virus and varicella-zoster virus. A new terminase inhibitor, letermovir, recently proved effective against human cytomegalovirus. However, the letermovir has no significant activity against other herpesviruses. New antivirals targeting other replication steps, such as capsid maturation or DNA packaging, and inducing fewer adverse effects are therefore needed. Targeting capsid assembly or DNA packaging provides additional options for the development of new drugs.
  • 1.1K
  • 25 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Chikungunya and Zika Viruses
Chikungunya and Zika viruses, both transmitted by mosquito vectors, have globally re-emerged over for the last 60 years and resulted in crucial social and economic concerns. Presently, there is no specific antiviral agent or vaccine against these debilitating viruses. Understanding viral–host interactions is needed to develop targeted therapeutics.
  • 1.1K
  • 26 Apr 2021
Topic Review
COVID-19 Pandemic
The SARS-CoV-2 belongs to the Coronaviridae family, like the other previously occurring human coronavirus variants.
  • 1.1K
  • 17 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Oropharyngeal Mucosal Epithelium in HIV-1 Transmission
The oropharyngeal mucosal epithelia have a polarized organization, which is critical for maintaining a highly efficient barrier as well as innate immune functions. In human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) disease, the barrier and innate immune functions of the oral mucosa are impaired via a number of mechanisms.
  • 1.1K
  • 25 May 2023
Topic Review
Model for MCMV Disease
Murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) is a natural pathogen of mice that is present in all wild mice populations and has been used extensively as an animal model for human cytomegalovirus disease. By manipulating the mouse strain, the type of virus used, the inoculation route and the addition of various chemotherapeutic treatments (e.g. immunosuppression), many human diseases can be modeled in a realistic and consistent way. This entry describes the many ways that MCMV has been used to model human disease.
  • 1.1K
  • 03 Feb 2021
Topic Review
HSP70&HSP90 in Viral Infection
Heat shock proteins (HSPs) are a large group of chaperones found in most eukaryotes and bacteria. They are responsible for the correct protein folding, protection of the cell against stressors, presenting immune and inflammatory cytokines; furthermore, they are important factors in regulating cell differentiation, survival and death. Although the biological function of HSPs is to maintain cell homeostasis, some of them can be used by viruses both to fold their proteins and increase the chances of survival in unfavorable host conditions.
  • 1.1K
  • 09 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Antiviral activity of vinifera leaf
Vitis vinifera represents an important and renowned source of compounds with significant biological activity. Wines and winery bioproducts, such as grape pomace, skins, and seeds, are rich in bioactive compounds against a wide range of human pathogens, including bacteria, fungi, and viruses. However, little is known about the biological properties of vine leaves.
  • 1.1K
  • 03 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Tracking SARS-CoV-2 variants in sewage
We have shown that environmental surveillance can be used to monitor SARS-CoV-2 transmission detecting virus variants specifically circulating in England and identifying changes in virus variant predominance known to have occurred during the COVID-19 epidemic. It is hoped that environmental surveillance can be used for the early detection of peaks in virus transmission for public health interventions to be timely implemented. 
  • 1.1K
  • 22 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Alignment-Free Study of Viral Diversity
Viral sequence variation can expand the host repertoire, enhance the infection ability, and/or prevent the build-up of a long-term specific immunity by the host. The study of viral diversity is, thus, critical to understand sequence change and its implications for intervention strategies.
  • 1.1K
  • 22 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Renin-Angiotensin System and COVID-19
The renin–angiotensin system (RAS), an essential enzymatic cascade involved in maintaining blood pressure and electrolyte balance, is involved in the pathogenicity of COVID-19, since the angiotensin-converting enzyme II (ACE2) acts as the cellular receptor for SARS-CoV-2 in many human tissues and organs. In fact, the viral entrance promotes a downregulation of ACE2 followed by RAS balance dysregulation and an overactivation of the angiotensin II (Ang II)–angiotensin II type I receptor (AT1R) axis, which is characterized by a strong vasoconstriction and the induction of the profibrotic, proapoptotic and proinflammatory signalizations in the lungs and other organs. This mechanism features a massive cytokine storm, hypercoagulation, an acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and subsequent multiple organ damage.
  • 1.1K
  • 25 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Long-Term Impact of COVID-19
Post-COVID-19 patients may experience persistent chest CT abnormalities, decreased lung function, persistent fatigue, and respiratory symptoms, decreased functional capacity, and decreased quality of life up to 6 months after symptom onset or hospital discharge. On average, 8 out of 10 patients had returned to work or reported no work impairment at around 3 months of follow-up.
  • 1.1K
  • 28 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Wheat Dwarf Virus and Disease
Wheat dwarf disease (WDD) is an important disease of monocotyledonous species, including economically important cereals. The causative pathogen, wheat dwarf virus (WDV), is persistently transmitted mainly by the leafhopper Psammotettix alienus and can lead to high yield losses. Due to climate change, the periods of vector activity increased, and the vectors have spread to new habitats, leading to an increased importance of WDV in large parts of Europe. In the light of integrated pest management, cultivation practices and the use of resistant/tolerant host plants are currently the only effective methods to control WDV.
  • 1.1K
  • 26 Oct 2023
Topic Review
Postnatal Zika Virus Infection
Although the Zika virus (ZIKV) typically causes mild or no symptoms in adults, during the 2015−2016 outbreak, ZIKV infection in pregnancy resulted in birth defects and neurodevelopmental disorders; however, little is known about the potential impact of ZIKV infection during infancy and early childhood. Considering the neurotropism of ZIKV and the rapidly-developing postnatal brain, it is important to understand how infection during infancy may disrupt neurodevelopment. Emerging clinical evidence supports the hypothesis that ZIKV infection during infancy can result in negative neurologic consequences. However, clinical data regarding postnatal ZIKV infection in children are limited; as such, animal models play an important role in understanding the potential complications of ZIKV infection related to the vulnerable developing brain. Preclinical data provide insight into the potential behavioral, cognitive, and motor domains that clinical studies should examine in pediatric populations exposed to ZIKV during infancy.
  • 1.1K
  • 08 Mar 2021
Topic Review
HIV-1 Entry
Human Immunodeficiency Virus type-1 (HIV-1) establishes a latent viral reservoir soon after infection, which poses a major challenge for drug treatment and curative strategies. Many efforts are therefore focused on blocking infection. To this end, both viral and host factors relevant to the onset of infection need to be considered. Given that HIV-1 is most often transmitted mucosally, strategies designed to protect against infection need to be effective at mucosal portals of entry. These strategies need to contend also with cell-free and cell-associated transmitted/founder (T/F) virus forms; both can initiate and establish infection.
  • 1.1K
  • 06 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Bacteriophages and Lytic Enzymes
Both phages and their lytic enzymes are now widely considered as safe and have now progressed to clinical phase II to show clinical efficacy as pharmaceutical.
  • 1.1K
  • 06 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Main Consequences of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) types 1 and 2 (HIV-1 and HIV-2, respectively) are the causative agents of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). At the end of 2021, an estimated 38.4 million people were infected with HIV (mainly HIV-1), which has claimed 40.1 million lives since the beginning of the AIDS pandemic. Even in the presence of highly active and multi-target antiretroviral drugs, HIV resists eradication. More importantly, through the direct induction of CD4+ lymphocyte depletion and the establishment of a chronic inflammatory environment, HIV infection is the primary driver of premature immune senescence and exhaustion, creating a series of deleterious conditions that enable the proliferation and decontrol of multiple pathogens, the development of tumors, and the onset of other non-AIDS comorbidities such as neurocognitive disorders and cardiovascular disease.
  • 1.1K
  • 17 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Temperate Phage
In the field of phage applications and clinical treatment, virulent phages have been in the spotlight whereas temperate phages received, relatively speaking, less attention. The fact that temperate phages often carry virulent or drug-resistant genes is a constant concern and drawback in temperate phage applications. However, temperate phages also play a role in bacterial regulation. The versatile use of temperate phages coupled with their inherent properties, such as economy, ready accessibility, wide variety and host specificity, make temperate phages a solid candidate in tackling bacterial infections. 
  • 1.1K
  • 16 Feb 2023
Topic Review
The Roles of the Virome in Cancer
Viral infections as well as changes in the composition of the intestinal microbiota and virome have been linked to cancer. Moreover, the success of cancer immunotherapy with checkpoint inhibitors has been correlated with the intestinal microbial composition of patients. The transfer of feces—which contain mainly bacteria and their viruses (phages)—from immunotherapy responders to non-responders, known as fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT), has been shown to be able to convert some non-responders to responders. Since phages may also increase the response to immunotherapy, for example by inducing T cells cross-reacting with cancer antigens, modulating phage populations may provide a new avenue to improve immunotherapy responsiveness.
  • 1.1K
  • 14 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Epstein–Barr Virus-Associated Diseases
Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) is a linear, double-stranded DNA gamma herpes virus which affects more than 90% of the worldwide population. Clinically, EBV primo-infection is usually silent, but symptomatic forms may arise in children and young adults, leading to infectious mononucleosis, where B lymphocytes are highly infected. In most EBV-infected individuals, the virus establishes lifelong latent infection with no specific clinical manifestation. However, EBV primary infections, as well as secondary reactivations, may cause various EBV-associated lymphoproliferative disorders (LPD) including hematologic malignancies, especially within immunocompromised hosts. While most of EBV-associated LPD involve B-cells, EBV-associated T/NK LPD are also reported, mostly appearing in Asia and Latin America and representing a spectrum of reactive, indolent and malignant disorders.
  • 1.1K
  • 13 Jul 2021
Topic Review
Nanotechnology in Viral Respiratory Infections
Viral-associated respiratory infectious diseases are one of the most prominent subsets of respiratory failures, known as viral respiratory infections (VRI). VRIs are proceeded by an infection caused by viruses infecting the respiratory system. Due to their specific physical and biological properties, nanoparticles hold promising opportunities for both anti-viral treatments and vaccines against viral infections.
  • 1.1K
  • 05 Aug 2021
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