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Topic Review
Host Susceptibility of SARS-CoV-2
The COVID-19 pandemic has caused the death of approximately 6 million people, with a case fatality rate which may be as high as 20% in those over 80 years old. Vaccines have proved to be extremely effective in reducing the damage and hospitalisation caused by this infection, although some patients still need supportive care. As the SARS-CoV-2 virus has continued to evolve, the potential for the virus to escape vaccine and exposure induced immunity remains a threat. In this situation, as at the start of the pandemic when no such vaccines were available, it is important that there exist therapeutics for the treatment of severely ill patients. In addition, comparison with other agents demonstrates that this drug is the most potent of the immune modulators in reducing COVID-19 mortality. As a result, it is now strongly recommended for the treatment of COVID-19 by the WHO.
  • 598
  • 01 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Granulicatella spp.
Granulicatella spp. are non-motile, non-sporulating, facultatively anaerobic Gram-positive cocci. These organisms have been referred to by several names, such as “nutritionally deficient streptococci”, “vitamin-B dependent streptococci” and “pyridoxal-dependent streptococci”, because of their fastidious nutritional requirements, which can often make culture isolation challenging. Known to be a member of the normal microbiota of the human oral cavity and urogenital and intestinal tracts, similar to other streptococci, Granulicatella spp. can cause bacteremia, sepsis and infective endocarditis. Considering the difficulty in growing this organism on culture medium, the fact that it is now included among the bacteria known to be responsible for culture-negative infective endocarditis suggests that its pathogenic role could be highly underestimated. Moreover, being considered such a rare causative agent, it is not a target of standard antibiotic empiric treatment. 
  • 597
  • 27 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Management of Spike Protein-Related Pathology
In the wake of the COVID-19 crisis, a need has arisen to prevent and treat two related conditions, COVID-19 vaccine injury and long COVID-19, both of which can trace at least part of their aetiology to the spike protein, which can cause harm through several mechanisms. One significant mechanism of harm is vascular, and it is mediated by the spike protein, a common element of the COVID-19 illness, and it is related to receiving a COVID-19 vaccine. Given the significant number of people experiencing these two related conditions, it is imperative to develop treatment protocols, as well as to consider the diversity of people experiencing long COVID-19 and vaccine injury. 
  • 596
  • 26 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Novel Strategies to Combat Antimicrobial Resistance
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is one of the most important global public health problems. The imprudent use of antibiotics in humans and animals has resulted in the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. The dissemination of these strains and their resistant determinants could endanger antibiotic efficacy. Therefore, there is an urgent need to identify and develop novel strategies to combat antibiotic resistance. 
  • 595
  • 20 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Guillain-Barré Syndrome in COVID-19 Pandemic
Guillain–Barré syndrome (GBS) is considered as one of the peripheral nervous system diseases usually present with lower motor neuron lesion signs: muscle atrophy, weakness, fasciculation, hypotonia, and hyporeflexia. COVID-19 is a systemic disorder that typically presents with fever and respiratory symptoms. Numerous case reports have indicated an association between the incidence of GBS and previous SARS-CoV-2 infection, which preceded GBS onset by up to four weeks. Therefore, a postinfectious dysregulation of the immune system, caused by SARS-CoV2, was found to be the most probable trigger.
  • 594
  • 19 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Microbial Natural Products with Anti-Human Immunodeficiency Virus
The resurgence and re-emergence of fatal viral infections pose a grave threat to public health. The emergence and spread of animal viruses are existential threats to humanity due to a number of intertwined and synergistic events, such as altered human behaviors, high-density rapid urbanization and demographic shift, modernization that encourages people with high mobility, large gatherings, global warming and destruction that altered the ecosystem, and an inadequate global public health system. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a type of retrovirus that infects humans. 
  • 594
  • 21 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Biomedical Application of AMPs
In a report by WHO (2014), it was stated that antimicrobial resistance is an arising challenge that needs to be resolved. This resistance is a critical issue in terms of disease or infection treatment and is usually caused due to mutation, gene transfer, long-term usage or inadequate use of antimicrobials, survival of microbes after consumption of antimicrobials, and the presence of antimicrobials in agricultural feeds. One of the solutions to this problem is antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), which are ubiquitously present in the environment. These peptides are of concern due to their special mode of action against a wide spectrum of infections and health-related problems. The biomedical field has the highest need of AMPs as it possesses prominent desirable activity against HIV-1, skin cancer, breast cancer, in Behcet’s disease treatment, as well as in reducing the release of inflammatory cells such as TNFα, IL-8, and IL-1β, enhancing the production of anti-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-10 and GM-CSF, and in wound healing properties. This review has highlighted all the major functions and applications of AMPs in the biomedical field and concludes the future potential of AMPs. 
  • 592
  • 24 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Movement Disorders Induced by SARS-CoV-2 Infection
Infections are a significant cause of movement disorders. The clinical manifestations of SARS-CoV-2 infection are variable, with up to one-third of patients developing neurologic complications, including movement disorders. 
  • 592
  • 23 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Multitargeting Compounds for Multi-Drug Resistant Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis (TB) is an airborne infectious disease caused by the bacillus Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB). To date, MTB still represents one of the most dangerous pathogens, claiming millions of lives each year worldwide. Polypharmacology could have features that make it an approach more effective than the classical polypharmacy, in which different drugs with high affinity for one target are taken together. Firstly, for a compound that has multiple targets, the probability of development of resistance should be considerably reduced. Moreover, such compounds should have higher efficacy, and could show synergic effects. Lastly, the use of a single molecule should be conceivably associated with a lower risk of side effects, and problems of drug–drug interaction.
  • 591
  • 19 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)
Recent estimates of 8 common bacterial, viral, and parasitic sexually-transmitted infections in the United States (chlamydia, gonorrhea, trichomoniasis, syphilis, herpes simplex virus type 2, human papillomavirus, hepatitis B virus, and human immunodeficiency virus) found them to have a combined prevalence of 67.6 million and incidence of 26.2 million. Though preventative health guidelines have clarified screening recommendations for some populations, many bacterial sexually-transmitted infections (STIs) are asymptomatic, leading to missed opportunities for diagnosis and underreporting of disease prevalence and incidence. The best available estimates, published in early 2021, are from 2018. Overall, it is thought that 1 in 5 people in the United States has an STI, with 45.5% of all new STIs occurring in adolescents and young adults. New infections amount to $16 billion in direct medical costs.
  • 591
  • 24 Jan 2022
Topic Review
The Pathophysiology of COVID-19 and T2DM Coagulopathy
Chronic inflammation and endothelium dysfunction are present in diabetic patients. COVID-19 has a high mortality rate in association with diabetes, partially due to the development of thromboembolic events in the context of coronavirus infection. Chronic inflammation, present in DM, enhances the synthesis of several cytokines. This chronic inflammatory state is preceded by a subclinical inflammatory response, represented by elevated IL-1β and IL-6 before the onset of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Endothelial dysfunction is also a consequence of Diabetes mellitus (DM) and leads to micro- and macroangiopathy, and concomitantly to hypercoagulability.
  • 591
  • 03 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Treatment of Bacterial Infections in T2DM Patients
Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is the metabolic disease with the highest morbidity rates worldwide. The condition is characterized by hyperglycemia, insulin resistance, hyperlipidemia, and chronic inflammation, among other detrimental conditions. These decrease the efficiency of the immune system, leading to an increase in the susceptibility to bacterial infections. Maintaining an optimal blood glucose level is crucial in relation to the treatment of T2DM, because if the level of this carbohydrate is lowered, the risk of infections can be reduced.
  • 591
  • 27 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Nucleic Acid Testing of SARS-CoV-2
The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has caused a large global outbreak. It is accordingly important to develop accurate and rapid diagnostic methods. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based method including reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) is the most widely used assay for the detection of SARS-CoV-2 RNA. Along with the RT-PCR method, digital PCR has emerged as a powerful tool to quantify nucleic acid of the virus with high accuracy and sensitivity. Non-PCR based techniques such as reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP) and reverse transcription recombinase polymerase amplification (RT-RPA) are considered to be rapid and simple nucleic acid detection methods and were reviewed in this entry. Non-conventional molecular diagnostic methods including next-generation sequencing (NGS), CRISPR-based assays and nanotechnology are improving the accuracy and sensitivity of COVID-19 diagnosis. 
  • 590
  • 04 Aug 2021
Topic Review
COVID-19 and Human Herpesviruses Reactivations
There are several human herpesviruses. A common characteristic of infection by these viruses is latency, by which the virus assumes a non-replicative state, subverting the attentions of the host’s immune response. In immunocompetent hosts, herpesviruses are immunologically controlled. In situations where immunological control is lost, herpesviruses can reactivate and produce clinically apparent disease. It is becoming apparent that COVID-19 or exposure to COVID-19 vaccines can exert several effects on the immune system. The pandemic of COVID-19 shows no sign of abating, with new severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) variants continuing to evolve.
  • 590
  • 02 Feb 2023
Topic Review
COVID-19 during Gestation
COVID-19, the disease caused by SARS-CoV-2 has reached pandemic proportions worldwide, with considerable consequences for both health and the economy. In pregnant women, COVID-19 can alter the metabolic environment, iron metabolism, and oxygen supply of trophoblastic cells, and therefore have a negative influence on pregnant women and mechanisms of fetal development, with implications in the postnatal life. The purpose of this study was to investigate, for the first time, the effects of COVID-19 infection during pregnancy with regard to the oxidative/antioxidant status in mothers’ serum and placenta, together with placental iron metabolism. Results showed no differences in superoxide dismutase activity and placental antioxidant capacity. However, antioxidant capacity decreased in the serum of infected mothers. Catalase activity decreased in the COVID-19 group, while an increase in 8-hydroxy-2’-deoxyguanosine, hydroperoxides, 15-FT-isoprostanes, and carbonyl groups were recorded in this group. Placental vitamin D, E, and Coenzyme-Q10 also showed to be increased in the COVID-19 group. As for iron-related proteins, an up-regulation of placental DMT1, ferroportin-1, and ferritin expression was recorded in infected women. Due to the potential role of iron metabolism and oxidative stress in placental function and complications, further research is needed to explain the pathogenic mechanism of COVID-19 that may affect pregnancy, so as to assess the short-term and long-term outcomes in mothers’ and infants’ health.
  • 589
  • 28 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Baricitinib in COVID-19 Therapy
During the current pandemic, the vast majority of COVID-19 patients experienced mild symptoms, but some had a potentially fatal aberrant hyperinflammatory immune reaction characterized by high levels of IL-6 and other cytokines. Modulation of this immune reaction has proven to be the only method of reducing mortality in severe and critical COVID-19. The anti-inflammatory drug baricitinib (Olumiant) has recently been strongly recommended by the WHO for use in COVID-19 patients because it reduces the risk of progressive disease and death. It is a Janus Kinase (JAK) 1/2 inhibitor approved for rheumatoid arthritis which was suggested in early 2020 as a treatment for COVID-19.
  • 589
  • 01 Jul 2022
Topic Review
The Potential of Probiotics
Probiotics, by definition, are live microorganisms, and should remain viable when they reach the intended site of action, which is typically the cecum and/or the colon.
  • 588
  • 24 Nov 2021
Topic Review
mRNA, Live-Attenuated/Chimeric and VLP-Based Vaccines
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is an enveloped, negative-sense, single-stranded RNA virus causing seasonal infections in a biphasic age distribution, affecting more frequently children until the age of 2 years with a higher frequency across the age spectrum from 6 weeks to 6 months, as well as older adults due to the reduction of immunity. 
  • 587
  • 03 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Immune Activation in HIV-1 Infection
Systemic chronic immune activation and CD4+ T-cell depletion characterize the progression of human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1) infection toward acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS).
  • 586
  • 31 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Neonatal SARS-CoV-2 Infection
The recent viral pandemic in Wuhan, Hubei, China has led to the identification of a new species of beta-coronaviruses, able to infect humans, the 2019-nCoV, later named SARS-CoV-2. SARS-CoV-2 causes a clinical syndrome named COVID-19, which presents with a spectrum of symptoms ranging from mild upper respiratory tract infection to severe pneumonia, with acute respiratory distress syndrome and death. All age groups are susceptible to the infection, but children, especially infants, seem to be partially spared, having a more favorable clinical course than other age groups. There is currently no clear evidence showing vertical transmission and intrauterine SARS-CoV-2 infection in fetuses of women developing COVID-19 pneumonia in late pregnancy, and even if transmission is possible, the SARS-CoV2 positivity of the mother does not require delivery by caesarean section, does not contraindicate the management of the infant in rooming-in and allows breastfeeding.
  • 585
  • 23 Jun 2021
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