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Topic Review
Advancements in Glaucoma Diagnosis
The progress of artificial intelligence algorithms in digital image processing and automatic diagnosis studies of the eye disease glaucoma has been growing and presenting essential advances to guarantee better clinical care for the population.
  • 419
  • 14 Mar 2024
Topic Review
Retinal Ganglion Cell Structure and Function in Glaucoma
Glaucoma, a leading cause of irreversible blindness globally, primarily affects retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). Glaucoma is a multifactorial eye disease defined by the progressive degeneration of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and their axons, eventually leading to irreversible vision loss. It has been projected that the worldwide prevalence of individuals affected by glaucoma will experience a substantial growth of 74% between the years 2013 and 2040. Glaucoma poses significant clinical and public health challenges as one of the leading causes of blindness around the globe. While elevated intraocular pressure (IOP) remains a significant risk factor and therapeutic target for glaucoma, it is becoming increasingly apparent that other factors may play a role in the disease’s pathogenesis and progression. The structure and function of RGCs, which serve as the ultimate output neurons of the retina and transmit visual information to the brain, are among the most crucial components being studied.
  • 417
  • 21 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Recent Advancements in Retinal Prosthesis Technology
Significant progress has been made in retinal prostheses, including material science, visual field size, and integration of artificial intelligence. These advancements reflect innovation and provide insights into the future of retinal prostheses. Retinal prostheses utilize inorganic and organic electrodes. Smaller electrodes optimize electrical signaling, but current electrodes have physical limitations. Common metals used are iridium, gold, titanium, tin, and platinum due to their inertness, electrical properties, and biocompatibility. Recent advancements aim to improve the visual field of retinal prostheses. One such example, POLYRETINA, a foldable and photovoltaic epiretinal prosthetic, addresses the limited visual field in current technology since existing prosthetics have insufficient visual angle size (VAS) for mobility and object identification tasks. Additionally, a recent study developed a wireless photovoltaic retinal implant (PRIMA) to improve central vision in atrophic age-related macular degeneration patients without affecting peripheral vision. Retinal prostheses face challenges in effectiveness, surgical complexity, patient eligibility, long-term durability, and cost/accessibility, which is why advancements in technology, surgical techniques, and understanding of retinal physiology are needed.
  • 416
  • 18 Sep 2023
Topic Review
The Ophthalmic Manifestations of Down Syndrome
Down Syndrome is one of the most common chromosomal conditions in the world, affecting an estimated 1 in 400–1500 live births. It is a multisystem genetic disorder, resulting from an extra copy of chromosome 21, either as a complete separate chromosome (most common), as a partial or full translocation, or existing in some but not all cells (mosaic form). This excess genetic material disrupts normal development, leading to characteristic physical features and developmental differences. Down Syndrome manifests with a wide range of ophthalmic findings. These include strabismus, amblyopia, accommodation defects, refractive error, eyelid abnormalities, nasolacrimal duct obstruction, nystagmus, keratoconus, cataracts, retinal abnormalities, optic nerve abnormalities, and glaucoma. These ophthalmic conditions are more prevalent in children with Down Syndrome than the general pediatric population, and without exception, early identification with thoughtful screening in this patient population can drastically improve prognosis and/or quality of life. 
  • 413
  • 23 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Inherited Optic Neuropathies
Inherited optic neuropathies, including Leber Hereditary Optic Neuropathy (LHON) and Dominant Optic Atrophy (DOA), are monogenetic diseases with a final common pathway of mitochondrial dysfunction leading to retinal ganglion cell (RGC) death and ultimately loss of vision.
  • 409
  • 13 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Corneal Models
The human eye is a specialized organ with a complex anatomy and physiology, because it is characterized by different cell types with specific physiological functions. Given the complexity of the eye, ocular tissues are finely organized and orchestrated. In the last few years, many in vitro models have been developed in order to meet the 3Rs principle (Replacement, Reduction and Refinement) for eye toxicity testing.
  • 408
  • 20 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Oxidative Stress for Optic Nerve Diseases
Glaucoma is the most prevalent optic nerve disease worldwide. Oxidative stress plays a pivotal role in the pathophysiology of optic nerve diseases such as glaucoma, Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON), and anterior ischemic optic neuropathy (AION). Imbalances between reactive oxygen species (ROS) as well as reactive nitrogen species (RNS) generation and antioxidant systems lead to reactive species overproduction, adenosine triphosphate (ATP) insufficiency, irreversible cellular injuries, and ultimately retinal ganglion cell (RGC) loss.
  • 408
  • 29 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Assessment of Orbital Compartment Pressure
The orbit is a closed compartment defined by the orbital bones and the orbital septum. Some diseases of the orbit and the optic nerve are associated with an increased orbital compartment pressure (OCP), e.g., retrobulbar hemorrhage or thyroid eye disease. Assessment of the indirect clinical markers of elevated OCP is relatively easy, fast, inexpensive, and hence widely available. Furthermore, these surrogates appear to relatively reliably indicate elevated OCP in orbital compartment syndrome. Thus, assessing these clinical findings will continue to be part of the management of orbital diseases. In many cases, these indirect clinical findings allow for diagnosis and therapeutic decision making sufficiently reliably without the need for further testing. In cases of suspected orbital compartment syndrome with potential vision loss, the indication for surgical intervention should be made at a low threshold. 
  • 405
  • 27 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Extracellular Matrix Components of Idiopathic Epiretinal Membranes
Idiopathic epiretinal membranes (iERMs) are fibrocellular sheets of tissue that develop at the vitreoretinal interface. The iERMs consist of cells and an extracellular matrix (ECM) formed by a complex array of structural proteins and a large number of proteins that regulate cell–matrix interaction, matrix deposition and remodelling. Many components of the ECM tend to produce a layered pattern that can influence the tractional properties of the membranes. 
  • 401
  • 01 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Immune System, Inflammation and Autoantigens in wAMD
Wet age-related macular degeneration (wAMD) is a chronic inflammation-associated neurodegenerative disease affecting the posterior part of the eye in the aging population. Aging results in the reduced functionality of cells and tissues, including the cells of the retina. Initiators of a chronic inflammatory and pathologic state in wAMD may be a result of the accumulation of inevitable metabolic injuries associated with the maintenance of tissue homeostasis from a young age to over 50. Apart from this, risk factors like smoking, genetic predisposition, and failure to repair the injuries that occur, alongside attempts to rescue the hypoxic outer retina may also contribute to the pathogenesis. Aging of the immune system (immunosenescence) and a compromised outer blood retinal barrier (BRB) result in the exposure of the privileged milieu of the retina to the systemic immune system, further increasing the severity of the disease. 
  • 398
  • 12 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Drug-Eluting Contact Lens Technologies
Due to an ageing population and climate change, the number of ophthalmic patients will increase, overwhelming healthcare systems and likely leading to under-treatment of chronic eye diseases. Since drops are the mainstay of therapy, clinicians have long emphasised the unmet need for ocular drug delivery. Alternative methods, i.e., with better compliance, stability and longevity of drug delivery, would be preferred. Drug-loaded contact lenses are among the most promising and are a real step toward dropless ocular therapy, potentially leading to a transformation in clinical ophthalmic practice.
  • 396
  • 13 Jun 2023
Topic Review
Optical Coherence Tomography Angiography in Uveitis
The global and precise follow-up of uveitis has become possible with the availability of dual fluorescein (FA) and indocyanine green angiography (ICGA) since the mid-1990s. Progressively, additional non-invasive imaging methods have emerged, bringing value-added precision to the imaging appraisal of uveitis, including, among others, optical coherence tomography (OCT), enhanced-depth imaging OCT (EDI-OCT) and blue light fundus autofluorescence (BAF). More recently, another complementary imaging method, OCT-angiography (OCT-A), further allowed retinal and choroidal circulation to be imaged without the need for dye injection. Promoting the possibility that non-invasive OCT-A can substitute the invasive dye methods is deleterious, giving the elusive impression that dye methods are no longer inevitable for evaluating uveitis patients. Nevertheless, OCT-A is a precious tool in uveitis research.
  • 395
  • 27 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Long Non-Coding RNAs in Proliferative Retinal Diseases
Retinopathy refers to disorders that affect the retina of the eye, which are frequently caused by damage to the retina’s vascular system. This causes leakage, proliferation, or overgrowth of blood vessels through the retina, which can lead to retinal detachment or breakdown, resulting in vision loss and, in rare cases, blindness. LncRNAs are becoming essential regulators of several critical biological pathways. 
  • 393
  • 29 May 2023
Topic Review
Role of Microaneurysms in Diabetic Macular Edema
Microaneurysms (MAs), a characteristic feature in diabetic retinopathy (DR) and diabetic macular edema (DME), can be detected by fluorescein angiography, optical coherence tomography (OCT) and OCT angiography. These instrumental analyses demonstrated a geographic and functional association between MA and ischemic areas. MA turnover, the production and loss of MA, reflects the activity of DME and DR. Several cytokines are involved in the pathogenesis of MAs, which is characterized by pericyte loss and endothelial cell proliferation in a vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-dependent or -independent manner. Ischemia and MAs localized in the deep retinal layers are characteristic of refractory DME cases. Even in the current anti-VEGF era, laser photocoagulation targeting MAs in the focal residual edema is still an effective therapeutic tool, but it is necessary to be creative in accurately identifying the location of MAs and performing highly precise and minimally invasive coagulation. MAs play a distinctive and important role in the pathogenesis of the onset, progression of DR and DME, and response to anti-VEGF treatment. Further research on MA is significant not only for understanding the pathogenesis of DME but also for improving the effectiveness of treatment.
  • 388
  • 03 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Approaches for Myopia Management
Different kinds of therapies (optical, pharmaceutical, environmental, or behavioral) have been researched to prevent or postpone the beginning of myopia and to decrease its progression in order to minimize the associated ocular diseases connected to myopia. Regarding environmental approaches, several meta-analyses have shown that spending more time outside is associated with a lower incidence of myopia.
  • 386
  • 18 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Artificial Intelligence in Glaucoma
Glaucoma is a multifactorial neurodegenerative illness requiring early diagnosis and strict monitoring of the disease progression. Artificial intelligence algorithms can extract various optic disc features and automatically detect glaucoma from fundus photographs.
  • 384
  • 20 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Pathogenesis and Risk Factors of Osteoarthritis
Knee osteoarthritis (OA) is a degenerative joint disease and the most common reason for knee joint replacements in the US, with 4.7 million individuals having undergone surgery in 2010 with an associated cost of USD 29,488 Per surgery. The high prevalence of knee OA manifests in enormous societal and personal expenses and urges to prevent OA progression to avoid surgery.
  • 382
  • 13 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Computer Vision Syndrome
Computer vision syndrome (CVS), also known as digital eye strain (DES), represents a range of ocular, musculoskeletal, and behavioral conditions caused by prolonged use of devices with digital screens.
  • 380
  • 14 Mar 2023
Topic Review
Overview of Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Exosomes in Ophthalmology
The field of mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) therapy has shown promise in treating ophthalmic diseases. However, MSC-based therapy faces limitations due to suboptimal biocompatibility, penetration, and delivery to the target ocular tissues. To overcome these challenges, researchers have turned their attention to a new aspect of MSCs - their exosomes. These extracellular vesicles possess properties similar to MSCs and can efficiently deliver therapeutic factors to ocular tissues that are typically difficult to target using conventional therapy and MSC transplantation. Exosomes, small vesicles derived from MSCs, exhibit properties such as anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, and immunomodulatory that are similar to their parent cells. These characteristics make exosomes an attractive alternative to MSCs for ocular therapy. Due to their nano-size, MSC-derived exosomes have the potential to better penetrate biological barriers, such as the blood-retinal barrier, and deliver their cargo effectively to ocular tissues. In addition, their cargo is protected from degradation, leading to increased bioavailability. This makes exosomes a promising candidate for ocular drug-delivery applications.
  • 380
  • 08 Jun 2023
Topic Review
IOCT-Assisted Endothelial Keratoplasty
iOCT serves as a guidance tool for key surgical processes in endothelial keratoplasty, from scoring the Descemet membrane to guaranteeing graft apposition at the conclusion of the procedure. For this reason, both Descemet stripping anterior endothelial keratoplasty (DSAEK) and Descemet membrane endothelial keratoplasty (DMEK) are made easier by intraoperative OCT.
  • 376
  • 02 Apr 2022
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