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Topic Review
Ru-106 Brachytherapy
Ruthenium-106 brachytherapy emits beta radiation (Ru-106 gives off radiation in the form of high energy electrons called beta particles as it decays into rhodium-106 and then into palladium-106, which isn't radioactive) and is used for tumors up to 5 mm in height due to the limited range of radiation penetration, but in some centers, it is used to treat thicker tumors. Therefore, ruthenium is intended for the treatment of small and some medium-sized tumors.
  • 777
  • 10 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Optical Coherence Tomography Angiography in Uveitis
The global and precise follow-up of uveitis has become possible with the availability of dual fluorescein (FA) and indocyanine green angiography (ICGA) since the mid-1990s. Progressively, additional non-invasive imaging methods have emerged, bringing value-added precision to the imaging appraisal of uveitis, including, among others, optical coherence tomography (OCT), enhanced-depth imaging OCT (EDI-OCT) and blue light fundus autofluorescence (BAF). More recently, another complementary imaging method, OCT-angiography (OCT-A), further allowed retinal and choroidal circulation to be imaged without the need for dye injection. Promoting the possibility that non-invasive OCT-A can substitute the invasive dye methods is deleterious, giving the elusive impression that dye methods are no longer inevitable for evaluating uveitis patients. Nevertheless, OCT-A is a precious tool in uveitis research.
  • 770
  • 27 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Myopia Control in Children
The growing incidence of myopia worldwide justifies the search for efficient methods of myopia prevention. Numerous pharmacological, optical, and lifestyle measures have already been utilized, but there remains a need to explore more practical and predictable methods for myopia control.
  • 770
  • 26 Oct 2023
Topic Review
Diabetic Macular Oedema
Diabetic macular oedema (DMO) is one of the leading causes of vision loss associated with diabetic retinopathy (DR). New insights in managing this condition have changed the paradigm in its treatment, with intravitreal injections of antivascular endothelial growth factor (anti-VEGF) having become the standard therapy for DMO worldwide. However, there is no single standard therapy for all patients DMO refractory to anti-VEGF treatment; thus, further investigation is still needed.
  • 766
  • 24 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Eye Pathological Angiogenesis
Angiogenesis is the new formation of vessels. Physiologically, it is essential for tissue repair; while its aberrant presentation, it may produce pathological disorders, such as Proliferative Diabetic Retinoptahy, Age Related Macular Degeneration, among many others. 
  • 766
  • 22 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Neurodegeneration and Death of Retinal Ganglion Cells
Retinal ganglion cells (RGC) transmit light and visual information to the brain via the long axons that form the optic nerve. RGCs are the measurable endpoints in current research into experimental therapies and diagnosis in multiple ocular pathologies, like glaucoma. RGC subtype classifications are based on morphological, functional, genetical, and immunohistochemical aspects.
  • 759
  • 22 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Dietary Flavonoid Intake and Chronic Sensory Conditions
Dietary flavonoids have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and vascular health benefits, which align with the proposed pathophysiology of age-related eye conditions and hearing problems (hearing loss and tinnitus). The flavonoid subclass, flavonols, are protective against eye conditions, including age-related macular degeneration, cataract, and glaucoma. Dietary flavonol intake appears to be protective against some chronic eye conditions. 
  • 759
  • 27 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Biomechanics of Suprachoroidal Injection
Suprachoroidal injections are a valuable strategy for ocular drug delivery, with effectiveness dependent on various parameters: injection force, injectate volume, formulation characteristics, and compartmentalization. For example, viscosity plays a critical role, as higher viscosity agents favor anterior drug localization, while lower viscosity enables greater posterior delivery. Higher viscosity formulations also slow clearance rates, prolonging the drug's duration of action. Particle size in suspensions is another key factor. Larger particles remain in the suprachoroidal space for longer periods and are less prone to washout by choroidal circulation, thereby extending therapeutic effects. By skillfully manipulating these parameters, researchers and clinicians can personalize drug delivery based on the specific location and chronicity of the ocular disease being treated, leading to improved treatment outcomes and patient satisfaction. This advancement marks a significant step toward precision medicine in ophthalmology.
  • 758
  • 04 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Emerging Pathogens and Ophthalmic Disease
Ophthalmologists are essential health care workers who provide urgent and emergent vision care services during outbreaks and address the ocular consequences of epidemic and pandemic infectious diseases. In 2017, the World Health Organization (WHO) identified high priority pathogens likely to cause a future epidemic with the goal of guiding research and development to improve diagnostic tests, vaccines, and medicines. 
  • 757
  • 14 May 2021
Topic Review
The Ophthalmic Manifestations of Down Syndrome
Down Syndrome is one of the most common chromosomal conditions in the world, affecting an estimated 1 in 400–1500 live births. It is a multisystem genetic disorder, resulting from an extra copy of chromosome 21, either as a complete separate chromosome (most common), as a partial or full translocation, or existing in some but not all cells (mosaic form). This excess genetic material disrupts normal development, leading to characteristic physical features and developmental differences. Down Syndrome manifests with a wide range of ophthalmic findings. These include strabismus, amblyopia, accommodation defects, refractive error, eyelid abnormalities, nasolacrimal duct obstruction, nystagmus, keratoconus, cataracts, retinal abnormalities, optic nerve abnormalities, and glaucoma. These ophthalmic conditions are more prevalent in children with Down Syndrome than the general pediatric population, and without exception, early identification with thoughtful screening in this patient population can drastically improve prognosis and/or quality of life. 
  • 756
  • 23 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Overview of Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Exosomes in Ophthalmology
The field of mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) therapy has shown promise in treating ophthalmic diseases. However, MSC-based therapy faces limitations due to suboptimal biocompatibility, penetration, and delivery to the target ocular tissues. To overcome these challenges, researchers have turned their attention to a new aspect of MSCs - their exosomes. These extracellular vesicles possess properties similar to MSCs and can efficiently deliver therapeutic factors to ocular tissues that are typically difficult to target using conventional therapy and MSC transplantation. Exosomes, small vesicles derived from MSCs, exhibit properties such as anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, and immunomodulatory that are similar to their parent cells. These characteristics make exosomes an attractive alternative to MSCs for ocular therapy. Due to their nano-size, MSC-derived exosomes have the potential to better penetrate biological barriers, such as the blood-retinal barrier, and deliver their cargo effectively to ocular tissues. In addition, their cargo is protected from degradation, leading to increased bioavailability. This makes exosomes a promising candidate for ocular drug-delivery applications.
  • 756
  • 08 Jun 2023
Topic Review
Macular Edema in Vascular Retinal Diseases
Macular edema (ME) is a disease characterized by the swelling of the macula due to the abnormal accumulation of fluid. It is associated with increased macular thickness and significantly reduced visual acuity, and it may develop in various ocular conditions.
  • 751
  • 01 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Diabetic Retinopathy and Hyperglycaemia
Diabetes mellitus (DM) has become a vital societal problem as epidemiological studies demonstrate the increasing incidence of type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Lesions observed in the retina in the course of diabetes, referred to as diabetic retinopathy (DR), are caused by vascular abnormalities and are ischemic in nature. Vascular lesions in diabetes pertain to small vessels (microangiopathy) and involve precapillary arterioles, capillaries and small veins. Pericyte loss, thickening of the basement membrane, and damage and proliferation of endothelial cells are observed. Endothelial cells (monolayer squamous epithelium) form the smooth internal vascular lining indispensable for normal blood flow. Breaking its continuity initiates blood coagulation at that site.
  • 750
  • 01 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Emerging Interventions for Autosomal Recessive ABCA4-Associated Stargardt Disease
Autosomal recessive Stargardt disease (STGD1) is an inherited retinal degenerative disease associated with a mutated ATP-binding cassette, subfamily A, member 4 (ABCA4) gene. STGD1 is the most common form of juvenile macular degeneration with onset in late childhood to early or middle adulthood and causes progressive, irreversible visual impairment and blindness. 
  • 746
  • 23 Oct 2023
Topic Review
Data-Driven AI in High Myopia and Pathologic Myopia
Myopia is a global health issue, and the prevalence of high myopia has increased significantly in the past five to six decades. Artificial intelligence (AI) has been identified as one of the key drivers of the Fourth Industrial Revolution. Because of the growth of digital databases, the number of AI-based applications in the medical field based on Python or C has increased immensely in recent years.
  • 743
  • 20 May 2022
Topic Review
Nanofibers as an Ocular System
Nanofibers are frequently encountered in daily life as a modern material with a wide range of applications. The important advantages of production techniques, such as being easy, cost effective, and industrially applicable are important factors in the preference for nanofibers. Nanofibers, which have a broad scope of use in the field of health, are preferred both in drug delivery systems and tissue engineering. Due to the biocompatible materials used in their construction, they are also frequently preferred in ocular applications. The fact that they have a long drug release time as a drug delivery system and have been used in corneal tissue studies, which have been successfully developed in tissue engineering, stand out as important advantages of nanofibers. 
  • 741
  • 05 May 2023
Topic Review
Retinal Pigment Epithelial Cells in Age-Related Macular Degeneration
Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) causes vision loss in the elderly population. Dry AMD leads to the formation of Drusen, while wet AMD is characterized by cell proliferation and choroidal angiogenesis. The retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) plays a key role in AMD pathogenesis. In particular, helioreceptor renewal depends on outer segment phagocytosis of RPE cells, while RPE autophagy can protect cells from oxidative stress damage.
  • 735
  • 21 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Overcoming Challenges in the Clinical Translation of MSC-Exosomes
MSC-based therapy for ophthalmic diseases has limitations in biocompatibility, penetration, and delivery. To address these challenges, researchers are exploring MSC exosomes, which possess similar properties to MSCs and efficiently deliver therapeutic factors to difficult-to-target ocular tissues. Research has shown that MSC-derived exosomes may offer significant advantages over traditional MSC-based therapies in regenerative medicine. By using exosomes, practitioners can avoid potential risks associated with MSC-centered therapies such as allogeneic immunological rejection, unwanted differentiation, and obstruction of small vessels caused by intravenous MSC injection. These benefits are critical for optimizing treatment outcomes.
  • 732
  • 08 Jun 2023
Topic Review
Computer Vision Syndrome
Computer vision syndrome (CVS), also known as digital eye strain (DES), represents a range of ocular, musculoskeletal, and behavioral conditions caused by prolonged use of devices with digital screens.
  • 725
  • 14 Mar 2023
Topic Review
Activity-Dependent Neuroprotective Protein in the Eye
Activity-dependent protein (ADNP) is a neuroprotective protein of 123.56 kDa molecular weight, widely expressed throughout the body, including the eye. Morphological and proteomic studies showed that ADNP is distributed in the retina and cornea of different species, including humans. ADNP was originally discovered as an astroglial secreted protein, able to modulate the neurotrophic/neuroprotective activity of vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), as well as of pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide (PACAP). PACAP and VIP perform their effects through the activation of G protein-coupled receptors, pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide receptor type 1 (PAC1R), vasoactive intestinal polypeptide receptor 1 (VPAC1R), and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide receptor 2 (VPAC2R). In particular, the PAC1 receptor shows eight different splice variants (Null, Hip, Hop1, Hop2, Hiphop1, Hiphop2, short, and very short isoforms), whose activation by the binding to PACAP/VIP activates phospholipase C (PLC) and adenylate cyclase (AC), or calcium-regulated mechanisms. It is worth noting that a subpicomolar concentration of PACAP stimulated ADNP expression mainly through the MAPK signaling pathway and cAMP-dependent protein kinase activation. Both VIP and PACAP showed important protective effects against different ocular diseases. 
  • 724
  • 25 Nov 2022
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