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Topic Review
Retinal Prostheses
A retinal prosthesis, also known as a bionic eye, is a device that can be implanted to partially restore vision in patients with retinal diseases that have resulted in the loss of photoreceptors (e.g., age-related macular degeneration and retinitis pigmentosa). There have been major breakthroughs in retinal prosthesis technology, with the creation of numerous types of implants, including epiretinal, subretinal, and suprachoroidal sensors. These devices can stimulate the remaining cells in the retina with electric signals to create a visual sensation.
  • 467
  • 07 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Nutritional and Metabolic Imbalance in Keratoconus
Keratoconus (KC) is a progressive corneal degeneration characterized by structural changes consisting of progressive thinning and steepening of the cornea.
  • 465
  • 08 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Molecular and Clinical Aspects of Anti-VEGF Drugs
Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is a major angiogenic molecule that induces choroid neovascularization (CNV). VEGF has five ligand member in human: VEGFA, VEGFB, VEGFC, VEGFD, and placenta growth factor, and there are three receptors: VEGFR1, VEGFR2 and VEGFR3. VEGFs play an important role in vascular development and choroid maintenance in the normal eye. The basolateral secretion of VEGF from the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) continues throughout life and mediates RPE survival. However, the increase in VEGF secretion from RPE and the loss of RPE polarity are causes of the pathologic CNV condition. Since the off- label bevacizumab started to be used to treat CNV, neovascular age-related macular degeneration (nAMD), there are several anti-VEGF agents approved: pegaptanib, ranibizumab, aflibercept, conbercept, brolucizumab, faricimab.
  • 465
  • 04 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Macular Edema in Vascular Retinal Diseases
Macular edema (ME) is a disease characterized by the swelling of the macula due to the abnormal accumulation of fluid. It is associated with increased macular thickness and significantly reduced visual acuity, and it may develop in various ocular conditions.
  • 464
  • 01 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Erythropoietin in Optic Neuropathies
Erythropoietin (EPO) is known as a hormone for erythropoiesis in response to anemia and hypoxia. EPO could interact with its heterodimer receptor (EPOR/βcR) to exert its anti-apoptosis, anti-inflammation and anti-oxidation effects in preventing retinal ganglion cells death through different intracellular signaling pathways.
  • 460
  • 12 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Dietary Flavonoid Intake and Chronic Sensory Conditions
Dietary flavonoids have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and vascular health benefits, which align with the proposed pathophysiology of age-related eye conditions and hearing problems (hearing loss and tinnitus). The flavonoid subclass, flavonols, are protective against eye conditions, including age-related macular degeneration, cataract, and glaucoma. Dietary flavonol intake appears to be protective against some chronic eye conditions. 
  • 459
  • 27 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Nano-Based DDS for Glaucoma
The eye is a complex and delicate organ that is protected by robust anatomical barriers. These barriers limit the penetration, bioavailability, and residence time of topically administered drugs. To address this challenge, researchers have developed polymeric nano-based drug delivery systems (DDS) that offer a promising solution. These DDS can penetrate ocular barriers, improving the bioavailability of administered drugs to targeted tissues and leading to better therapeutic outcomes. Biodegradable polymers are often used in these DDS to minimize adverse effects that can result from drugs that are not naturally decomposable, such as the risk of infection, tissue damage, or toxic byproducts.
  • 457
  • 12 May 2023
Topic Review
Treating Early and Advanced Stage of Diabetic Retinopathy
A brief overview about the advances in the experimental field on the treatment of early stages of diabetic retinopathy (ESDR), as well as the main gaps to be filled will be given. In addition, a critical view on the current clinical practice for treating advanced stages of diabetic retinopathy (ASDR) will be provided.
  • 454
  • 23 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Data-Driven AI in High Myopia and Pathologic Myopia
Myopia is a global health issue, and the prevalence of high myopia has increased significantly in the past five to six decades. Artificial intelligence (AI) has been identified as one of the key drivers of the Fourth Industrial Revolution. Because of the growth of digital databases, the number of AI-based applications in the medical field based on Python or C has increased immensely in recent years.
  • 447
  • 20 May 2022
Topic Review
Overcoming Challenges in the Clinical Translation of MSC-Exosomes
MSC-based therapy for ophthalmic diseases has limitations in biocompatibility, penetration, and delivery. To address these challenges, researchers are exploring MSC exosomes, which possess similar properties to MSCs and efficiently deliver therapeutic factors to difficult-to-target ocular tissues. Research has shown that MSC-derived exosomes may offer significant advantages over traditional MSC-based therapies in regenerative medicine. By using exosomes, practitioners can avoid potential risks associated with MSC-centered therapies such as allogeneic immunological rejection, unwanted differentiation, and obstruction of small vessels caused by intravenous MSC injection. These benefits are critical for optimizing treatment outcomes.
  • 442
  • 08 Jun 2023
Topic Review
Corneal Transplantation in the Past Decade
The cornea is a transparent avascular structure located in the front of the eye that refracts light entering the eyes and also serves as a barrier between the outside world and the internal contents of the eye. Like every other body part, the cornea may suffer insult from trauma, infection, and inflammation. In the case of trauma, a prior infection that left a scar, or conditions such as keratoconus that warrant the removal of all or part of the cornea (keratoplasty), it is important to use healthy donor corneal tissues and cells that can replace the damaged cornea. The types of cornea transplant techniques employed currently include penetrating keratoplasty, endothelial keratoplasty (EK), and artificial cornea transplant. Postoperative failure acutely or after years can result after a cornea transplant and may require a repeat transplant. This research briefly examines the various types of corneal transplant methodologies, indications, contraindications, presurgical protocols, sources of cornea transplant material, wound healing after surgery complications, co-morbidities, and the effect of COVID-19 in corneal transplant surgery.
  • 438
  • 18 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Cell Therapy, Optogenetics and Exosomes for Retinitis Pigmentosa
Retinitis pigmentosa (RP) is a hereditary disease that causes the gradual degeneration of the photoreceptor cells in the retina, starting with the rods, leading to a progressive loss of vision over time. RP is the most prevalent form of inherited retinal dystrophy, affecting over 1.5 million individuals worldwide and significantly impacting both patients and society. RP is a primary cause of visual disability and blindness in people under 60 years old, and common symptoms include nyctalopia and gradual peripheral vision loss. If left untreated, RP can ultimately lead to complete blindness.
  • 435
  • 12 May 2023
Topic Review
Ocular Barriers
Innovative and new drug delivery systems (DDSs) have been developed to vehicle treatments and drugs to the ocular posterior segment and the retina. New formulations and technological developments, such as nanotechnology, novel matrices, and non-traditional treatment strategies, open new perspectives in this field.
  • 435
  • 13 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Keratoconus Disease
Keratoconus is the most common primary corneal ectasia characterized by progressive focal thinning. Patients experience increased irregular astigmatism, decreased visual acuity and corneal sensitivity. Corneal collagen crosslinking (CXL), a minimally invasive procedure, is effective in halting disease progression.
  • 434
  • 08 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Suitability Prediction for Corneal Donorship
In Germany, more than one-third of donor corneas harvested are not suitable for transplantation. We evaluated the factors associated with the usability of donor corneas. Method: Data from 2032 consecutive donor corneas harvested at the Rhineland-Palatinate Eye Bank in Mainz, Germany, were retrospectively analyzed. Factors of interest were age, sex, lens status, cause of death, cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), death-to-explantation-interval (DEI), and the influence of these factors on the proportion of discarded donor corneas. Factors associated with endothelial cell density (ECD) were analyzed in a linear regression mixed model. Results: Higher donor age, male gender, pseudophakic lens status, and longer DEI were associated with significantly reduced ECD. With respect to DEI, the estimated cell loss was 7 ± 2 cells/mm2/hour (p < 0.001). Age was associated with a lower ECD of 6 ± 2 cells/mm2 per year (p = 0.001). Female ECD was 189 ± 44 cells/mm2 higher than male ECD (p < 0.001). Pseudophakic eyes had 378 ± 42 cells/mm2 less compared with phakic eyes (p < 0.001). Cause of death did not affect the ECD. Of note, 55% and 38% of corneas harvested on the second and third postmortem day, respectively, and 45% of corneas from donors older than 80 years were still suitable for transplantation. In the context of a growing need for donor corneas, we do not recommend limiting donor age and collection time to 24 h or excluding oncology donors, as is the practice in many countries. Therefore, we propose a mathematical model for better donor preselection. 
  • 431
  • 10 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Nutrition and Digital Eye Strain
Digital eye strain is a complex, multifactorial condition that can be caused by excessive screen time exposure to various electronic devices such as smartphones, tablets, e-readers, and computers.
  • 429
  • 18 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Clinical Investigations and Diagnosis of Peripapillary Intrachoroidal Cavitation
Peripapillary intrachoroidal cavitation (PICC) is a yellow-orange lesion, located at the outer border of the myopic conus. First described as a localized detachment of the retinal pigment epithelium, its intrachoroidal location was later revealed, justifying its current name. PICC is related to other myopic complications such as posterior staphyloma, but its pathogenesis is not clear to date. Although it has been considered a benign condition, most eyes with PICC show visual field defects, which leads to diagnostic uncertainty as these deficits resemble those seen in glaucoma. Furthermore, eyes with PICC may develop macular detachment with retinoschisis.
  • 429
  • 21 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Nanofibers as an Ocular System
Nanofibers are frequently encountered in daily life as a modern material with a wide range of applications. The important advantages of production techniques, such as being easy, cost effective, and industrially applicable are important factors in the preference for nanofibers. Nanofibers, which have a broad scope of use in the field of health, are preferred both in drug delivery systems and tissue engineering. Due to the biocompatible materials used in their construction, they are also frequently preferred in ocular applications. The fact that they have a long drug release time as a drug delivery system and have been used in corneal tissue studies, which have been successfully developed in tissue engineering, stand out as important advantages of nanofibers. 
  • 425
  • 05 May 2023
Topic Review
In Vivo Confocal Microscopy in Dry Eye Diagnosis
There are many common ocular surface disorders (OSD), such as Dry Eye Disease (DED), blepharitis, and meibomian gland dysfunction (MGD), whose management requires visualization of certain ocular surface structures via slit-lamp biomicroscopy. In vivo confocal microscopy (IVCM), a more recent imaging technique has been evaluated in clinics for similar visualization.
  • 423
  • 04 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Application of Electrophysiology in Non-Macular Inherited Retinal Dystrophies
Inherited retinal dystrophies encompass a diverse group of disorders affecting the structure and function of the retina, leading to progressive visual impairment and, in severe cases, blindness. Electrophysiology testing has emerged as a valuable tool in assessing and diagnosing those conditions, offering insights into the function of different parts of the visual pathway from retina to visual cortex and aiding in disease classification. The different applications and limitations of electrophysiology techniques, including multifocal electroretinogram (mfERG), full-field ERG (ffERG), electrooculogram (EOG), pattern electroretinogram (PERG), and visual evoked potential (VEP), in the diagnosis and management of these distinctive phenotypes are discussed.
  • 423
  • 27 Nov 2023
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