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Topic Review
Oxidative Stress for Optic Nerve Diseases
Glaucoma is the most prevalent optic nerve disease worldwide. Oxidative stress plays a pivotal role in the pathophysiology of optic nerve diseases such as glaucoma, Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON), and anterior ischemic optic neuropathy (AION). Imbalances between reactive oxygen species (ROS) as well as reactive nitrogen species (RNS) generation and antioxidant systems lead to reactive species overproduction, adenosine triphosphate (ATP) insufficiency, irreversible cellular injuries, and ultimately retinal ganglion cell (RGC) loss.
  • 814
  • 29 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Models of Diabetic Retinopathy
Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is an ocular complication of diabetes mellitus (DM), a metabolic disorder characterized by elevation in blood glucose level. The pathogenesis of DR includes vascular, neuronal, and inflammatory components leading to activation of complex cellular molecular signaling. If untreated, the disease can culminate in vision loss that eventually leads to blindness. Animal models mimicking different aspects of DM complications have been developed to study the development and progression of DR. Despite the significant contribution of the developed DR models to discovering the mechanisms of DR and the recent achievements in the research field, the sequence of cellular events in diabetic retinas is still under investigation. Partially, this is due to the complexity of molecular mechanisms, although the lack of availability of models that adequately mimic all the neurovascular pathobiological features observed in patients has also contributed to the delay in determining a precise molecular trigger.
  • 812
  • 16 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Incidence and Risk Factors of Bilateral Herpetic Keratitis
Herpetic keratitis is the result of a corneal infection with Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV) and it is recognized as a leading cause of corneal blindness worldwide. Bilateral HSV keratitis is a rare clinical manifestation and consists of simultaneously occurring infection in both eyes.
  • 811
  • 21 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Nutritional and Metabolic Imbalance in Keratoconus
Keratoconus (KC) is a progressive corneal degeneration characterized by structural changes consisting of progressive thinning and steepening of the cornea.
  • 810
  • 08 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Omics-Based Biomarker Discovery in Retinal Vascular Diseases
Retinal vascular disease is a highly prevalent vision-threatening ocular disease in the global population; however, its exact mechanism remains unclear. The expansion of omics technologies has revolutionized a new medical research methodology that combines multiple omics data derived from the same patients to generate multi-dimensional and multi-evidence-supported holistic inferences, providing unprecedented opportunities to elucidate the information flow of complex multi-factorial diseases. Omics data from eye biopsies can identify the molecular mechanisms of retinal vascular diseases in addition to the associated diagnostic prognostic and predictive biomarkers.
  • 808
  • 13 Jan 2023
Topic Review
3D Printing in Ophthalmology
Three-dimensional (3D) printing is a process in which materials are added together in a layer-by-layer manner to construct customized products. Many different techniques of 3D printing exist, which vary in materials used, cost, advantages, and drawbacks. Medicine is increasingly benefiting from this transformative technology, and the field of ophthalmology is no exception. The possible 3D printing applications in eyecare are vast and have been explored in the literature, such as 3D-printed ocular prosthetics, orbital implants, educational and anatomical models, as well as surgical planning and training. 
  • 807
  • 01 Feb 2024
Topic Review
Treating Early and Advanced Stage of Diabetic Retinopathy
A brief overview about the advances in the experimental field on the treatment of early stages of diabetic retinopathy (ESDR), as well as the main gaps to be filled will be given. In addition, a critical view on the current clinical practice for treating advanced stages of diabetic retinopathy (ASDR) will be provided.
  • 806
  • 23 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Oxidative Stress Implications for Retinal Diseases
Oxidative stress plays a significant role in the pathogenesis of various retinal diseases, including diabetic retinopathy (DR), age-related macular degeneration (AMD), glaucoma, and retinopathy of prematurity (ROP).
  • 804
  • 29 Feb 2024
Topic Review
Corneal Biomechanics following Laser Refractive Surgery in Eyes
The role of corneal biomechanics in laser vision correction (LVC) is being raised in the assessment of postoperative corneal ectasia risk. Research reveal the highest corneal biomechanics reduction after laser in situ keratomileusis (LASIK) followed by small incision lenticule extraction (SMILE) and surface procedures, such as photorefractive keratectomy (PRK) or laser-assisted sub-epithelial keratectomy (LASEK). In SMILE procedure treatment planning, the use of thicker caps preserves the corneal biomechanics. Similarly, reduction of flap thickness in LASIK surgery maintains the corneal biomechanical strength.
  • 803
  • 04 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Optical Coherence Tomography in Neurological and Vessel Diseases
For glaucoma evaluation, several studies have suggested that in the early stages, ganglion cell complex (GCC) analysis, especially the thickness of the infero and that of the inferotemporal GCC layers, is a more sensitive examination than circumpapillary retinal nerve fiber layer (pRNFL). In the moderate stages of glaucoma, inferior pRNFL thinning is better correlated with the disease than in advanced cases. Another strategy for glaucoma detection is to find any asymmetry of the ganglion cell–inner plexiform layers (GCIPL) between the two macular hemifields, because this finding is a valuable indicator for preperimetric glaucoma, better than the retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL) thickness or the absolute thickness parameters of GCIPL. In preperimetric and suspected glaucoma, GCC and pRNFL have better specificity and are superior to the visual field. In advanced stages, pRNFL and later, GCC reach the floor effect. 
  • 797
  • 08 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Nano-Based DDS for Glaucoma
The eye is a complex and delicate organ that is protected by robust anatomical barriers. These barriers limit the penetration, bioavailability, and residence time of topically administered drugs. To address this challenge, researchers have developed polymeric nano-based drug delivery systems (DDS) that offer a promising solution. These DDS can penetrate ocular barriers, improving the bioavailability of administered drugs to targeted tissues and leading to better therapeutic outcomes. Biodegradable polymers are often used in these DDS to minimize adverse effects that can result from drugs that are not naturally decomposable, such as the risk of infection, tissue damage, or toxic byproducts.
  • 795
  • 12 May 2023
Topic Review
Gene Therapy for Neovascular Age-Related Macular Degeneration
Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a complex and multifactorial disease and a leading cause of irreversible blindness in the elderly population. The anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (anti-VEGF) therapy has revolutionized the management and prognosis of neovascular AMD (nAMD) and is currently the standard of care for this disease. However, patients are required to receive repeated injections, imposing substantial social and economic burdens. The implementation of gene therapy methods to achieve sustained delivery of various therapeutic proteins holds the promise of a single treatment that could ameliorate the treatment challenges associated with chronic intravitreal therapy, and potentially improve visual outcomes. Several early-phase trials are currently underway, evaluating the safety and efficacy of gene therapy for nAMD; however, areas of controversy persist, including the therapeutic target, route of administration, and potential safety issues.
  • 793
  • 18 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Biologics in Uveitis Treatment
Biological drugs, especially those targeting anti-tumour necrosis factor α (TNFα) molecule, have revolutionized the treatment of patients with non-infectious uveitis (NIU), a sight-threatening condition characterized by ocular inflammation that can lead to severe vision threatening and blindness. 
  • 788
  • 15 Mar 2023
Topic Review
Clinical Investigations and Diagnosis of Peripapillary Intrachoroidal Cavitation
Peripapillary intrachoroidal cavitation (PICC) is a yellow-orange lesion, located at the outer border of the myopic conus. First described as a localized detachment of the retinal pigment epithelium, its intrachoroidal location was later revealed, justifying its current name. PICC is related to other myopic complications such as posterior staphyloma, but its pathogenesis is not clear to date. Although it has been considered a benign condition, most eyes with PICC show visual field defects, which leads to diagnostic uncertainty as these deficits resemble those seen in glaucoma. Furthermore, eyes with PICC may develop macular detachment with retinoschisis.
  • 788
  • 21 Jul 2023
Topic Review
In Vivo Confocal Microscopy in Dry Eye Diagnosis
There are many common ocular surface disorders (OSD), such as Dry Eye Disease (DED), blepharitis, and meibomian gland dysfunction (MGD), whose management requires visualization of certain ocular surface structures via slit-lamp biomicroscopy. In vivo confocal microscopy (IVCM), a more recent imaging technique has been evaluated in clinics for similar visualization.
  • 787
  • 04 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Corneal Transplantation in the Past Decade
The cornea is a transparent avascular structure located in the front of the eye that refracts light entering the eyes and also serves as a barrier between the outside world and the internal contents of the eye. Like every other body part, the cornea may suffer insult from trauma, infection, and inflammation. In the case of trauma, a prior infection that left a scar, or conditions such as keratoconus that warrant the removal of all or part of the cornea (keratoplasty), it is important to use healthy donor corneal tissues and cells that can replace the damaged cornea. The types of cornea transplant techniques employed currently include penetrating keratoplasty, endothelial keratoplasty (EK), and artificial cornea transplant. Postoperative failure acutely or after years can result after a cornea transplant and may require a repeat transplant. This research briefly examines the various types of corneal transplant methodologies, indications, contraindications, presurgical protocols, sources of cornea transplant material, wound healing after surgery complications, co-morbidities, and the effect of COVID-19 in corneal transplant surgery.
  • 782
  • 18 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Immune System, Inflammation and Autoantigens in wAMD
Wet age-related macular degeneration (wAMD) is a chronic inflammation-associated neurodegenerative disease affecting the posterior part of the eye in the aging population. Aging results in the reduced functionality of cells and tissues, including the cells of the retina. Initiators of a chronic inflammatory and pathologic state in wAMD may be a result of the accumulation of inevitable metabolic injuries associated with the maintenance of tissue homeostasis from a young age to over 50. Apart from this, risk factors like smoking, genetic predisposition, and failure to repair the injuries that occur, alongside attempts to rescue the hypoxic outer retina may also contribute to the pathogenesis. Aging of the immune system (immunosenescence) and a compromised outer blood retinal barrier (BRB) result in the exposure of the privileged milieu of the retina to the systemic immune system, further increasing the severity of the disease. 
  • 782
  • 12 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Posterior Capsule Opacification: Experimental Review
Posterior capsule opacification (PCO) is the most common complication of cataract surgery. It causes a gradual deterioration of visual acuity, which would otherwise improve after a successful procedure. Despite recent advances in ophthalmology, this complication has not been eradicated, and the incidence of PCO can be as high as 10%.
  • 781
  • 06 Jul 2021
Topic Review
Central Role of Inflammation and Parainflammation in AMD
Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is an age-related condition that progressively impairs central vision with increasing age. AMD affects the central portion of the retina called the macula, which is required for central vision and visually demanding tasks like recognizing faces, reading, and driving.
  • 780
  • 26 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Ocular Manifestations of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a chronic autoimmune systemic disorder of the connective tissue that does not affect only one certain organ but has a diversified effect all over the body. The etiology of SLE is may be idiopathic, genetic, hormonal, or environmental. The diagnosis of SLE is difficult and requires a series of tests and findings which can be systemic or ocular. Approximately one-third of those diagnosed with SLE experience ocular manifestations that range from mild to severe sight-threatening conditions. Ocular manifestations of SLE include keratoconjunctivitis sicca, uveitis, and posterior segment pathologic signs.
  • 779
  • 29 Feb 2024
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