Summary

On 11 March 2020, the World Health Organization declared COVID-19 a global pandemic, and the disease now affects nearly every country and region. Caused by SARS-CoV-2, COVID-19 continues nearly 18 months later to present significant challenges to health systems and public health in both hemispheres, as well as the economies of every country. The morbidity and mortality of the infection caused by SARS-CoV-2 has been significant, and various waves of disease outbreaks initially overwhelmed many hospitals and clinics and continue to do so in many countries. This influences everyone, and public health countermeasures have been dramatic in terms of their impact on employment, social systems, and mental health. This entry collection aims to gather diverse fields about COVID-19, including in epidemiology, public health, medicine, genetics, systems biology, informatics, data science, engineering, sociology, anthropology, nursing, environmental studies, statistics, and psychology.

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Entries
Topic Review
Physiological Effects of Covid-19 and Exercise
The world has been severely challenged by the Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) outbreak since the early 2020s. Worldwide, there have been more than 66 million cases of infection and over 3,880,450 million deaths caused by this highly contagious disease. All sections of the population including those who are affected, who are not affected and those who have recovered from this disease are suffering physiologically. Physiological effects of COVID-19 may be managed by exercise management as a prevention strategy. Moderate exercise including walking, yoga, and tai-chi to name but a few exercise regimes are critical in preventing COVID-19 and its complications.  
  • 547
  • 29 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Nanomaterials for Viral Diseases Diagnosis, Prevention, and Treatment
Nanomaterials can be tailored for specific uses by modulating physical and chemical properties, including size, morphology, surface charge, and solubility. Due to these controllable properties, nanomaterials have been used in biosensors to potentiate target-specific reactions that respond to biochemical environments, such as temperature, pH, and the presence of enzymes.
  • 943
  • 14 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Mesenchymal Stem Cells in COVID-19
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are multipotent adult stem cells present in virtually all tissues; they have a potent self-renewal capacity and can differentiate into multiple cell types. They also affect the ambient tissue by the paracrine secretion of numerous factors in vivo, including the induction of other stem cells’ differentiation. In vitro, the culture media supernatant is named secretome and contains soluble molecules and extracellular vesicles that retain potent biological function in tissue regeneration.
  • 424
  • 14 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Antigen Presentation of SARS-CoV-2 mRNA Vaccines
Infection with Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) causes Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), which has reached pandemic proportions. A number of effective vaccines have been produced, including mRNA vaccines and viral vector vaccines, which are now being implemented on a large scale in order to control the pandemic. The mRNA vaccines are composed of viral Spike S1 protein encoding mRNA incorporated in a lipid nanoparticle and stabilized by polyethylene glycol (PEG). The mRNA vaccines are novel in many respects, including cellular uptake and the intracellular routing, processing, and secretion of the viral protein. Because of space restrictions, viral vector vaccines not discussed in detail. The antigen presentation routes in MHC class I and class II, in relation to the induction of virus-neutralizing antibodies and cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, will be reviewed. In rare cases, mRNA vaccines induce unwanted immune mediated side effects. In rare cases, the mRNA-based vaccines may lead to an anaphylactic reaction. This reaction may be triggered by PEG. The intracellular routing of PEG and potential presentation in the context of CD1 will be discussed. 
  • 1.2K
  • 11 Oct 2021
Topic Review
RNA-Dependent RNA-Polymerase (RdRp)
RdRp is an attractive target for developing therapies for COVID-19 as it plays a crucial role in the replication of SARS-CoV-2 (Scheme 1) and is well conserved between coronaviruses (RNA viruses).
  • 542
  • 09 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Interactions of SARS-CoV-2 & Variants with Cellular Components
Given the global scale of the COVID-19 pandemic and the health emergency it has caused, it is crucial to understand the impact of SARS-CoV-2 and its mutations. Here, we comprehensively review SARS-CoV-2 interactions with host cells, describe SARS-CoV-2 variants, assess impact of their protein mutations and enumerate databases with SARS-CoV-2 host-pathogen interaction data. 
  • 833
  • 24 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Emerging SARS-CoV-2 Variants of Concern (VOC)
The worldwide battle against the SARS-CoV-2 virus rages on, with millions infected and many innocent lives lost. The causative organism, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), is a beta coronavirus that belongs to the Coronaviridae family. Many clinically significant variants have emerged, as the virus’s genome is prone to various mutations, leading to antigenic drift and resulting in evasion of host immune recognition. The current variants of concern (VOCs) include B.1.1.7 (Alpha), B.1.351 (Beta), B.1.617/B.1.617.2 (Delta), and P.1 (Gamma). The emerging variants contain various important mutations on the spike protein, leading to deleterious consequences, such as immune invasion and vaccine escape. These adverse effects result in increased transmissibility, morbidity, and mortality and the evasion of detection by existing or currently available diagnostic tests, potentially delaying diagnosis and treatment. This review discusses the key mutations present in the VOC strains and provides insights into how these mutations allow for greater transmissibility and immune evasion than the progenitor strain. Continuous monitoring and surveillance of VOC strains play a vital role in preventing and controlling the virus’s spread.
  • 628
  • 08 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Mucormycosis
Mucormycosis (also called zygomycosis) is a serious fungal infection caused by a group of molds called mucoromycetes. The types of fungi that mostly cause mucormycosis include Rhizopus spp., Mucor spp., Rhizomucor spp., Syncephalastrum spp., Cunninghamella bertholletia, Apophysomyces spp., and Lichtheimia (formerly Absidia) spp.
  • 599
  • 09 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Sensing and Detection of Viruses
SARS-CoV-2 (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2) is a virus that belongs to the coronavirus family that provokes respiratory illness in humans. It was transmitted from animals to humans in a mutated form and was first identified in December 2019 in Wuhan, China. The SARS-CoV-2 virus causes COVID-19, a disease named by the World Health Organization on 11 February 2020.
  • 603
  • 30 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Olfactory-Disorders in Post-Acute COVID-19 Syndrome
Altered smell is one of the most prevalent symptoms in acute COVID-19 infection. Although most patients recover normal neurosensory function in a few weeks, approximately one-tenth of patients report long-term smell dysfunction, including anosmia, hyposmia, parosmia and phantosmia, with a particularly notable impact on quality of life. In this complex scenario, inflammation and cellular damage may play a key role in the pathogenesis of olfactory dysfunctions and may affect olfactory signaling from the peripheral to the central nervous system.
  • 452
  • 29 Sep 2021
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