Summary

On 11 March 2020, the World Health Organization declared COVID-19 a global pandemic, and the disease now affects nearly every country and region. Caused by SARS-CoV-2, COVID-19 continues nearly 18 months later to present significant challenges to health systems and public health in both hemispheres, as well as the economies of every country. The morbidity and mortality of the infection caused by SARS-CoV-2 has been significant, and various waves of disease outbreaks initially overwhelmed many hospitals and clinics and continue to do so in many countries. This influences everyone, and public health countermeasures have been dramatic in terms of their impact on employment, social systems, and mental health. This entry collection aims to gather diverse fields about COVID-19, including in epidemiology, public health, medicine, genetics, systems biology, informatics, data science, engineering, sociology, anthropology, nursing, environmental studies, statistics, and psychology.

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Entries
Topic Review
Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest Management during the COVID-19 Pandemic
Out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) is a prominent cause of death worldwide. As indicated by the high proportion of COVID-19 suspicion or diagnosis among patients who had OHCA, this issue could have resulted in multiple fatalities from coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) occurring at home and being counted as OHCA.
  • 493
  • 13 Jan 2023
Topic Review
ACE2 Signaling Pathway and Processing during COVID-19 Infection
ACE2 (angiotensin-converting enzyme) can be described as an enzyme, a transporter, and through its role as a receptor.
  • 531
  • 13 Jan 2023
Topic Review
COVID-19 Pandemic for Cardiovascular Diseases in Italy
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has been responsible for an epidemic of devastating proportion, and it has represented a challenge for worldwide healthcare systems with the need of resources reallocation in order to face epidemic spread. Italy was one of the hardest hit countries by COVID-19, and the Italian government adopted strict rules to contain the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic, such as national lockdown and home quarantine; moreover, the Italian healthcare system had to rapidly re-organize the diagnostic and therapeutic pathways, with a reallocation of health resources and hospital beds, in order to manage COVID-19 patients. 
  • 335
  • 13 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Chronic High Fructose Intake in Beverages and SARS-CoV-2
Fructose intake from SSBs increased during the COVID-19 lockdown. Chronic high intake of fructose activates several damage-associated processes of lung injury, including renin-angiotensin system (RAS) activation, uric acid (UA) levels, aldose reductase (AR) activity, and advanced glycation end products (AGEs) production. These molecular mechanisms are involved in lung injury induced by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection. 
  • 747
  • 12 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Liver-Associated Injuries in COVID-19 Patients
The global outbreak of COVID-19 possesses serious challenges and adverse impacts for patients with progression of chronic liver disease and has become a major threat to public health. COVID-19 patients have a high risk of lung injury and multiorgan dysfunction that remains a major challenge to hepatology. COVID-19 patients and those with liver injury exhibit clinical manifestations, including elevation in ALT, AST, GGT, bilirubin, TNF-α, and IL-6 and reduction in the levels of CD4 and CD8. Liver injury in COVID-19 patients is induced through multiple factors, including a direct attack of SARS-CoV-2 on liver hepatocytes, hypoxia reperfusion dysfunction, cytokine release syndrome, drug-induced hepatotoxicity caused by lopinavir and ritonavir, immune-mediated inflammation, renin-angiotensin system, and coagulopathy. Cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying liver dysfunction are not fully understood in severe COVID-19 attacks. High mortality and the development of chronic liver diseases such as cirrhosis, alcoholic liver disease, autoimmune hepatitis, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, and hepatocellular carcinoma are also associated with patients with liver damage. COVID-19 patients with preexisting or developing liver disease should be managed. They often need hospitalization and medication, especially in conjunction with liver transplants. 
  • 493
  • 13 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Ketoprofen Lysine Salt as Pharmacological Treatment for SARS-CoV-2
COVID-19 is an infective disease resulting in widespread respiratory and non-respiratory symptoms prompted by SARS-CoV-2 infection. Interaction between SARS-CoV-2 and host cell receptors prompts activation of pro-inflammatory pathways which are involved in epithelial and endothelial damage mechanisms even after viral clearance. Since inflammation has been recognized as a critical step in COVID-19, anti-inflammatory therapies, including both steroids and non-steroids as well as cytokine inhibitors, have been proposed. Early treatment of COVID-19 has the potential to affect the clinical course of the disease regardless of underlying comorbid conditions. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), which are widely used for symptomatic relief of upper airway infections, became the mainstay of early phase treatment of COVID-19.
  • 636
  • 11 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Homocysteine in SARS-CoV-2 Infection
Since December 2019, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has spread rapidly throughout the world causing health, social and economic instability. The severity and prognosis of patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection are associated with the presence of comorbidities such as cardiovascular disease, hypertension, chronic lung disease, cerebrovascular disease, diabetes, chronic kidney disease, and malignancy. Thrombosis is one of the most serious complications that can occur in patients with COVID-19. Homocysteine is a non-proteinogenic α-amino acid considered a potential marker of thrombotic diseases.
  • 579
  • 11 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Molecular Diagnosis of COVID-19
COVID-19 is no longer a global pandemic due to development and integration of different technologies for the diagnosis and treatment of the disease, technological advancement in the field of molecular biology, electronics, computer science, artificial intelligence, Internet of Things, nanotechnology, etc. has led to the development of molecular approaches and computer aided diagnosis for the detection of COVID-19. 
  • 647
  • 11 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Potential Effects of Fasting in SARS-CoV-2 Infection
Intermittent fasting is a potential complementary therapy to vaccination and antiviral therapies that not only impacts chronic disease risk but also has good evidence of an impact on infectious diseases such as COVID-19. Intermittent fasting should improve the immune response of and reduce acute hyperinflammation for unvaccinated people, strengthen immunity between vaccinations for vaccinated people, and prolong the length of time a vaccinated person can go before receiving a subsequent booster dose of the SARS-CoV-2 vaccine. A set of at least 10 biological mechanisms may be impacted by intermittent fasting in the human physiological response to SARS-CoV-2 that may reduce the severity of COVID-19 outcomes. For example, by boosting autophagy, fasting may aid the immune system to identify silently infected cells via increased degradation of viral proteins and through antigen presentation to natural killer cells and cytotoxic T cells. Intermittent fasting may also provide a constellation of mechanisms that empower a damaged human immune system to repair itself and to hunt down residual SARS-CoV-2 virus that is hiding from it in the context of both acute infection and post-acute sequelae of COVID-19. Furthermore, fasting adds no financial cost to a care plan and, when practiced safely, is available to most adults regardless of education, income, location, or ancestry. Clinical trials of intermittent fasting for reduction of COVID-19 severity are needed.
  • 1.8K
  • 06 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Treatments under Development of SARS-CoV-2
Coronaviridae is a single-strand, positive-sense, enveloped RNA virus family, circulating in many avian and mammal species hosts. In December 2019, a patient was found to have pneumonia caused by an unknown betacoronavirus. With the unbiased sample sequencing of the patient, a novel coronavirus was identified and named Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2, SARS-CoV-2, by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV).
  • 434
  • 29 Dec 2022
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