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Topic Review
Three-Dimensional Models in Breast Cancer
To more accurately replicate the in vivo three-dimensional (3D) mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) niche and enhance cellular phenotypes for superior in vivo treatments, MSC functionalization through in vitro 3D culture approaches has gained attention. The organization of MSCs in 3D spheroids results in altered cell shape, cytoskeleton rearrangement, and polarization. Investigations have revealed that the survival and secretory capability of MSCs are positively impacted by moderate hypoxia within the inner zones of MSC spheroids. The spheroid hypoxic microenvironment enhances the production of angiogenic and anti-apoptotic molecules, including HGF, VEGF, and FGF-2. Furthermore, it upregulates the expression of hypoxia-adaptive molecules such as CXCL12 and HIF-1, inhibiting MSC death. 
  • 171
  • 10 Jan 2024
Topic Review
Three-Dimensional In Vitro Cell Models of HNSCC
Researchers have been trying to answer the demand of clinical oncologists to create an ideal preclinical model of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) that is accessible, reproducible, and relevant. Over the past, the development of cellular technologies has naturally allowed people to move from primitive short-lived primary 2D cell cultures to complex patient-derived 3D models that reproduce the cellular composition, architecture, mutational, or viral load of native tumor tissue. Depending on the tasks and capabilities, a scientific laboratory can choose from several types of models: primary cell cultures, immortalized cell lines, spheroids or heterospheroids, tissue engineering models, bioprinted models, organoids, tumor explants, and histocultures. HNSCC in vitro models make it possible to screen agents with potential antitumor activity, study the contribution of the tumor microenvironment to its progression and metastasis, determine the prognostic significance of individual biomarkers (including using genetic engineering methods), study the effect of viral infection on the pathogenesis of the disease, and adjust treatment tactics for a specific patient or groups of patients. 
  • 121
  • 20 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Three-Dimensional In Vitro Cell Culture Models
Despite tremendous advancements in technologies and resources, drug discovery still remains a tedious and expensive process. Though most cells are cultured using 2D monolayer cultures, due to lack of specificity, biochemical incompatibility, and cell-to-cell/matrix communications, they often lag behind in the race of modern drug discovery. There exists compelling evidence that 3D cell culture models are quite promising and advantageous in mimicking in vivo conditions. It is anticipated that these 3D cell culture methods will bridge the translation of data from 2D cell culture to animal models. Although 3D technologies have been adopted widely these days, they still have certain challenges associated with them, such as the maintenance of a micro-tissue environment similar to in vivo models and a lack of reproducibility. However, newer 3D cell culture models are able to bypass these issues to a maximum extent.
  • 706
  • 10 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Three-Dimensional Genome Organization in Breast and Gynecological Cancers
A promoter is a DNA region between 20 and 1000 bp upstream of the transcription start site TSS, which has particular binding sites for transcriptional factors involved in gene transcription.
  • 415
  • 18 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Three-Dimensional Cultures in Fungal Pathogenesis
Three-dimensional (3D) cultures are pivotal in vitro studies as an alternative model that curtails research expenses. Three-dimensional (3D) cell cultures are extensively employed for novel drug screening of antifungals. Several advantages are tied to obtaining more precise toxicity and efficacy results than in vivo models, along with host–pathogen interactions closely mimicking reality.
  • 236
  • 12 Oct 2023
Topic Review
Three-Dimensional Culture Systems
It is getting more and more clear that cancer cell culture models are switching from two-dimension to three-dimensional, in order to better reflect in vivo situations where tumor cells have to cope with a highly interactive three-dimensional microenvironment. Several such culture models have been reported, predominantly multicellular tumor spheroids (MCTS) and patient-derived tumor organoids (PDTO). These are used both to investigate fundamental aspects of cancer development and as test systems for innovative therapies against gastric cancer, the fifth most common cancer and the third leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. The authors review the actual state of research in this field to provide an overview of the contribution of MCTS and PDTO, especially in the areas of molecular profiling, drug discovery, pathogen infection, and personalized medicine.
  • 787
  • 18 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Three-Dimensional Cell Culture Methods
Cells, the basic structures of all living organisms, reside in an extracellular matrix consisting of a complex three-dimensional architecture and interact with neighboring cells both mechanically and biochemically. Cell–cell and cell–extracellular matrix interactions form a three-dimensional network that maintains tissue specificity and homeostasis. Important biological processes in a cell cycle are regulated by principles organized by the microenvironment surrounding the cell. The conventional cell culture methods failed to mimic in vivo-like structural organization and are insufficient to examine features such as connectivity of cells, cellular morphology, viability, proliferation, differentiation, gene and protein expression, response to stimuli, and drug/vaccine metabolism. Three-dimensional cell culture studies are very important in terms of reducing the need for in vivo studies and creating an intermediate step.
  • 645
  • 17 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Three-Dimensional Bioprinting in Cardiovascular Disease
Three-dimensional (3D) printing plays an important role in cardiovascular disease through the use of personalised models that replicate the normal anatomy and its pathology with high accuracy and reliability. 3D bioprinting represents a promising field that could revolutionise the future of cardiovascular disease treatment. Three-dimensional bioprinting uses mostly the same additive manufacturing technologies but prints functional living structures from biological components such as living cells, biomaterials and growth factors.
  • 225
  • 01 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Three Members of the Synuclein Family
Synucleins are a family of small aggregation-prone proteins consisting of three members, alpha, beta and gamma-synuclein. Alpha-synuclein is the most investigated member of the family due to its involvement in neurodegenerative diseases called synucleinopatjies. Synucleins easily change their conformation and may be converted to toxic aggregates. They are in the focus of attention of biochemists, molecular and cellular biologists who try to reveal their normal functions and role  in diseaases.  
  • 424
  • 03 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Three Drug-Based Therapy for Neuroblastoma
High-risk neuroblastoma (HR-NB) still remains the most dangerous tumor in early childhood. For this reason, the identification of new therapeutic approaches is of fundamental importance. Recently, we combined the conventional pharmacological approach to NB, represented by cisplatin, with fendiline hydrochloride, an inhibitor of several transporters involved in multidrug resistance of cancer cells, which demonstrated an enhancement of the ability of cisplatin to induce apoptosis. In this work, we co-administrated acetazolamide, a carbonic anhydrase isoform IX (CAIX) inhibitor which was reported to increase chemotherapy efficacy in various cancer types, to the cisplatin/fendiline approach in SKNBE2 xenografts in NOD-SCID mice with the aim of identifying a novel and more effective treatment. We observed that the combination of the three drugs increases more than twelvefold the differences in the cytotoxic activity of cisplatin alone, leading to a remarkable decrease of the expression of malignancy markers. Our conclusion is that this approach, based on three FDA-approved drugs, may constitute an appropriate improvement of the pharmacological approach to HR-NB.
  • 487
  • 09 Jul 2021
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