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Topic Review
Ubiquitin and Ubiquitin-like Proteins in T-Lymphocytes
Ubiquitination is a posttranslational modification that is involved in almost every cellular process. The most prominent function is the targeting of protein substrates for their degradation by the proteasome to maintain cellular protein homeostasis. Moreover, ubiquitination can serve many nonproteolytic functions like the regulation of protein kinase signaling, DNA damage response, intracellular trafficking, and transcription and translation. Ubiquitination is mediated by the transfer of the highly conserved 76 amino -acid protein ubiquitin to a target protein. Since T cells play a central role in the immune system and are indispensable for maintaining the adaptive cell mediated immunity, T cell signaling, and activation have to be tightly controlled. Like phosphorylation, ubiquitination is a reversible and highly dynamic process and critical for normal T cell function. In this regard, modification of T cell signaling proteins by ubiquitin or ubiquitin-related proteins is responsible not only for the initiation of T cell signaling but also for the termination of T cell activity.
  • 460
  • 15 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Ubiquilin Networking in Cancers
Ubiquilins or UBQLNs, members of the ubiquitin-like and ubiquitin-associated domain (UBL-UBA) protein family, serve as adaptors to coordinate the degradation of specific substrates via both proteasome and autophagy pathways. The UBQLN substrates reveal great diversity and impact a wide range of cellular functions. For decades, researchers have been attempting to uncover a puzzle and understand the role of UBQLNs in human cancers, particularly in the modulation of oncogene’s stability and nucleotide excision repair.
  • 679
  • 18 Sep 2020
Topic Review
Tβ4-POP-Ac-SDKP Axis in Organ Fibrosis
Fibrosis is a pathological process in which parenchymal cells are necrotic and excess extracellular matrix (ECM) is accumulated due to dysregulation of tissue injury repair. Thymosin β4 (Tβ4) is a 43 amino acid multifunctional polypeptide that is involved in wound healing. Prolyl oligopeptidase (POP) is the main enzyme that hydrolyzes Tβ4 to produce its derivative N-acetyl-seryl-aspartyl-lysyl-proline (Ac-SDKP) which is found to play a role in the regulation of fibrosis. Accumulating evidence suggests that the Tβ4-POP-Ac-SDKP axis widely exists in various tissues and organs including the liver, kidney, heart, and lung, and participates in the process of fibrogenesis. The Tβ4-POP-Ac-SDKP axis exerts protective effects against organ fibrosis. It is promising that appropriate dosing regimens that rely on this axis could serve as a new therapeutic strategy for alleviating organ fibrosis in the early and late stages.
  • 278
  • 16 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors in Cancer
Intracellular protein tyrosine kinases, including Abelson (Abl), Src, JNK and many others, play a pivotal role in signal transduction pathways and cancer development, being highly activated in malignant tumor cells, but having very low activity and expression in normal cells. Consequently, in the last thirty years, many small molecule tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) have entered in clinical trials and were approved to treat hematologic and non-hematologic tumors, thus improving cancer treatment. In particular, the greatest progress has been made with the use of TKIs in the treatment of chronic myeloid leukemia (CML).
  • 627
  • 22 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors in BCLC-B Hepatocellular Carcinoma
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) represents an entity of poor prognosis, especially in cases of delayed diagnosis. Tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) have multiple anti-tumor effects and are widely used in several types of cancers. They down-regulate different molecular pathways that take part in carcinogenesis. The primary targets are the tyrosine kinase receptors (RTKs), key proteins that regulate cancer growth and metastasis. Specifically, TKIs block the phosphorylation of tyrosine kinases and the subsequent signaling pathways, slowing down cancer growth. Some of the inhibited networks are the rat sarcoma (RAS)/mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), phosphoinositide 3-kinase (Pi3K)/protein kinase B (AKT)/mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR), phospholipase C (PLC)/Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase-protein kinase C (CaMK-PKC), Janus kinase (JAK)/signal transducer and activator of transcription protein family (STAT), epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), vascular endothelial growth factor receptor (VEGFR), fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR), platelet-derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR), hepatocyte growth factor receptor (HGFR, Met), and RAF kinases. Due to their multiple actions, TKIs were the standard treatment of care in advanced HCC over the last 15 years, but after the induction of IO, they now comprise the second-line option.
  • 104
  • 27 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Tyrosinase and Melanogenesis Inhibition
Melanin is a widespread natural pigment that is responsible for color in hair, skin, and eyes. It provides protection against the deleterious effects of ultraviolet (UV) irradiation. Melanogenesis is the physiological process of melanin formation in which TYR, a copper-dependent enzyme, initiates the first step. Tyrosinase catalyzes the rate-limiting step where L-tyrosine is converted to L-3,4,-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA), leading to the eventual formation of the pigment.
  • 1.4K
  • 27 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Typical and Atypical Optic Neuritis
Optic neuritis (ON) is an inflammatory condition involving the optic nerve. Several important typical and atypical ON variants are now recognized. Typical ON has a more favorable prognosis; it can be idiopathic or represent an early manifestation of demyelinating diseases, mostly multiple sclerosis (MS). The atypical spectrum includes entities such as antibody-driven ON associated with neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD) and myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody disease (MOGAD), chronic/relapsing inflammatory optic neuropathy (CRION), and sarcoidosis-associated ON. Appropriate and timely diagnosis is essential to rapidly decide on the appropriate treatment, maximize visual recovery, and minimize recurrences. 
  • 442
  • 20 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Types of Transcatheter Aortic Valve Replacement Devices
Transcatheter aortic valve replacement (TAVR) was originally conceptualized in the early 1990s, largely inspired by the pioneering experiences in the field of percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty.
  • 5.7K
  • 03 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Types of Retinal Cell Death in Diabetic Retinopathy
Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a major complication of diabetes and a leading cause of blindness worldwide. DR was recently defined as a neurovascular disease associated with tissue-specific neurovascular impairment of the retina in patients with diabetes. Neurovascular cell death is the main cause of neurovascular impairment in DR.
  • 126
  • 01 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Types of Mesenchymal Stem Cells from Oral Cavity
Adult mesenchymal stem cells are those obtained from the conformation of dental structures (DMSC), such as deciduous and permanent teeth and other surrounding tissues. 
  • 582
  • 21 Nov 2023
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