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Topic Review
Cardiac Neural Crest and Cardiac Regeneration
Neural crest cells (NCCs) are a vertebrate-specific, multipotent stem cell population that have the ability to migrate and differentiate into various cell populations throughout the embryo during embryogenesis. Based on the initial axial position and site of contribution, NCCs are divided into specific subpopulations, such as the cardiac neural crest (NC), which mainly contributes to the cardiac valves, interventricular septum, and both the aorta and pulmonary vessel. The heart is a muscular and complex organ whose primary function is to pump blood and nutrients throughout the body. Mammalian hearts, such as those of humans, lose their regenerative ability shortly after birth. However, a few vertebrate species, such as zebrafish, have the ability to self-repair/regenerate after cardiac damage. Recent research has discovered the potential functional ability and contribution of cardiac NCCs to cardiac regeneration through the use of various vertebrate species and pluripotent stem cell-derived NCCs. This potential regenerative capacity to cardiac tissue poses interesting avenues to advance the treatment of various cardiac diseases. Heart disease, a leading cause of death in the United States, results in death or severe damage to the function and/or structural integrity of the heart. Determining the contribution and regenerative capacity of the cardiac NC in mammalian systems is of high clinical significance. Here, the focus is on the NC’s regenerative capacity in various tissues and systems, and in particular, the characteristics of cardiac NCCs between species and their roles in cardiac regeneration are summarized. Emerging and future work to determine the potential contributions of NCCs for disease treatment will be further discussed.
  • 308
  • 29 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Cardiac Neural Crest Cells
Cardiac neural crest cells (NCCs), a specified subpopulation of the neural crest (NC), are vital for normal cardiovascular development, as they significantly contribute to the pharyngeal arch arteries, the developing cardiac outflow tract (OFT), cardiac valves, and interventricular septum. Various signaling pathways and factors are shown to orchestrate the proper migration, compaction, and differentiation of cardiac NCCs during cardiovascular development. Any loss or dysregulation of various signaling components in cardiac NCCs can lead to abnormal cardiovascular development during embryogenesis, resulting in abnormalities categorized as congenital heart defects (CHDs).
  • 688
  • 10 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Cardiac Reprogramming
Direct reprogramming of fibroblasts into CM-like cells has emerged as an attractive strategy to generate induced CMs (iCMs) in heart regeneration. However, low conversion rate, poor purity, and the lack of precise conversion of iCMs are still present as significant challenges. In this review, we summarize the recent development in understanding the molecular mechanisms of cardiac reprogramming with various strategies to achieve more efficient iCMs. reprogramming. Specifically, we focus on the identified critical roles of transcriptional regulation, epigenetic modification, signaling pathways from the cellular microenvironment, and cell cycling regulation in cardiac reprogramming. We also discuss the progress in delivery system optimization and cardiac reprogramming in human cells related to preclinical applications. We anticipate that this will translate cardiac reprogramming-based heart therapy into clinical applications. In addition to optimizing the cardiogenesis related transcriptional regulation and signaling pathways, an important strategy is to modulate the pathological microenvironment associated with heart injury, including inflammation, pro-fibrotic signaling pathways, and the mechanical properties of the damaged myocardium. We are optimistic that cardiac reprogramming will provide a powerful therapy in heart regenerative medicine.
  • 354
  • 29 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Cardiovascular Disease and Exercise
Inactivity is a significant risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Exercise may greatly enhance the metabolism and function of the cardiovascular system, lower several risk factors, and prevent the development and treatment of cardiovascular disease while delivering easy, physical, and emotional enjoyment. Exercise regulates the cardiovascular system by reducing oxidative stress and chronic inflammation, regulating cardiovascular insulin sensitivity and the body’s metabolism, promoting stem cell mobilization, strengthening autophagy and myocardial mitochondrial function, and enhancing cardiovascular damage resistance, among other effects.
  • 422
  • 05 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Cardiovascular Diseases and Stem Cells
This entry provides an update on previous and current research in the field of Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), a class of disorders affecting the heart or blood vessels. Despite progress in clinical research and therapy, CVDs still represent the leading cause of mortality and morbidity worldwide. The hallmarks of cardiac diseases include inflammation, fibrosis, scar tissue, hyperplasia, hypertrophy, abnormal ventricular remodeling, and cardiomyocyte death, which is an irreversible process that induces heart failure with progressive and dramatic consequences. Both genetic and environmental factors pathologically contribute to the development of CVDs, but the precise causes that trigger cardiac diseases and their progression are still largely unknown. In this scenario, the possibility to generate patient-specific cardiac cells from induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) represents a powerful platform for the investigation of these life-threatening disorders.
  • 944
  • 26 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Carotid Body
Overview of the physiology of the adult carotid body, the main peripheral chemoreceptor in mammals, which contains a physiologically relevant germinal niche with multipotent neural crest-derived stem cells and restricted progenitors from both neural and mesenchymal lineages. The carotid body (CB), a neural-crest-derived organ and the main arterial chemoreceptor in mammals, is composed of clusters of cells called glomeruli. 
  • 662
  • 23 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Caspase Inhibition Improves Electrotransfer Efficiency
Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapy has been approved to treat patients with various B cell-related tumors, including B-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma (PMBCL), and high-grade B-cell lymphoma. T cell receptor (TCR) knockout is a critical step in producing universal CAR T cells. A promising approach to achieving the knockout is to deliver the CRISPR/Cas9 system into T cells using electrotransfer technology.
  • 533
  • 27 Sep 2020
Topic Review
Caspase-Dependent Programmed Cell Death
Billions of cells die in us every hour, and our tissues do not shrink because there is a natural regulation where Cell Death (CD) is balanced with cell division. The process in which cells eliminate themselves in a controlled manner is called Programmed Cell Death (PCD). The PCD plays an important role during embryonic development, in maintaining homeostasis of the body’s tissues, and in the elimination of damaged cells, under a wide range of physiological and developmental stimuli. Apoptosis is an RCD pathway that occurs inside eukaryotic cells and whose purpose is the death of the cell itself. Apoptosis is a “cellular suicide” in which a protein program of self-destruction triggered by extracellular or intracellular signals is set in motion. RCD means that the steps for cell degeneration are established, but that does not mean that the cell is predetermined to die; that is, there will be no apoptosis if there is no signal to initiate it. The role of apoptosis is important in many physiological and pathological processes of multicellular organisms, such as the morphogenesis of organs and tissues during embryonic development, in the maintenance and regeneration of tissues in the adult animal, in response to pathogens, or as a response to cellular stress and pathologies such as cancer. The number of cells that die by apoptosis is enormous, both during embryonic development and in the adult state, associated with caspases, that not only control apoptosis, but also proliferation, differentiation, cell form and cell migration.
  • 150
  • 08 Jan 2024
Topic Review
CCCTC-Binding Factor for Chromatin Regulation
Chromatin, a macromolecular complex of DNA, RNA, and proteins, provides a framework for the packaging of genetic material within the cell nucleus. Its organization plays a crucial role in gene expression and is regulated by a diverse array of protein complexes in response to a dynamic code of histone posttranslational modifications and DNA modifications. Architectural proteins are essential epigenetic regulators that play a critical role in organizing chromatin and controlling gene expression. CTCF (CCCTC-binding factor) is a key architectural protein responsible for maintaining the intricate 3D structure of chromatin. Because of its multivalent properties and plasticity to bind various sequences, CTCF is similar to a Swiss knife for genome organization.
  • 300
  • 25 May 2023
Topic Review
CCL2
Factors secreted from adipose tissue may induce and/or maintain a local and systemic low-grade activation of the innate immune system. Attraction of macrophages into adipose tissue and altered crosstalk between macrophages, adipocytes, and other cells of adipose tissue are symptoms of metabolic inflammation. Among several secreted factors attracting immune cells to adipose tissue, chemotactic C-C motif chemokine ligand 2 (CCL2) (also described as monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1)) has been shown to play a crucial role in adipose tissue macrophage infiltration. 
  • 974
  • 28 Sep 2021
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