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Topic Review
Technological Innovation Efficiency in China
Innovation is the engine and accelerator that drives high-quality economic and enterprise development. In recent years, the output of scientific and technological innovation in China has been high, but the phenomenon of low efficiency and low quality of innovation occurs frequently. Under the high-intensity systemic investment in innovation, China’s overall innovation capability continues to rise.According to the National Bureau of Statistics of China, China ranks first in research and experimental development (R&D) activities in the world’s major economies. From the perspective of innovation output, China is at the forefront of the world regarding the scale of patent authorisation and the number of international papers published. However, it is puzzling that China’s national innovation index has always been outside the top 10 in the world (in 2021, it ranked 12th). With the increasingly fierce scientific and technological competition between China and the United States of America (USA), the negative list of some core technologies from the USA has highlighted the problem of “sticking neck” in China’s key technologies. It reflects the fact that although China has a large amount of innovations, many are low-quality innovations. There are core technologies still controlled by others. The surging output of innovation in China has not been accompanied by the improvement of innovation quality, which also shows that China’s technological innovation is facing the dilemma of innovation inefficiency caused by the input–output mismatch. Technological innovation efficiency (TIE) is a key indicator to measure the output level of innovation input factors per unit time. Compared with other developed countries, China’s innovation efficiency is still far away in terms of TIE.
  • 342
  • 22 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Technological Innovation for Climate Change Mitigation
}} Climate change has worsened at the hands of human activity for centuries, and many scientific efforts have been made since the first political acknowledgment. In order to avoid the ongoing and potential impacts of climate change, mitigation technologies have been developed in order to adapt to the issue, each invention belonging to one of four specific groups of effort. These groups include energy efficiency improvements, renewable energy (RE), nuclear power/energy (NE), and carbon capture storage (CCS). However, concerns regarding mitigating and adapting to climate change commonly have a priority focus on the groups of carbon capture storage and renewable energy efforts. Traditionally, areas of western civilization around the world have the resources and finances to successfully develop and maintain technological mitigators to climate change. The research and development of these technologies require funding and incur high costs. There is a global inconsistency in producing these inventions, leaving developing countries without the means to defend themselves against the issue of climate change. Ironically, some of these areas are powerless enough while being the most inflicted by climate change in the world. Climate change was mentioned as early as 1896 by Swedish chemist, Svante Arrhenius. The topic did not emerge as a political issue until the 1950s. Public policy is its own actor in the business of climate innovations through its control over the activity of emitting and reducing pollution inventions. Predominantly, legislature works to control the innovations particularly through placing restrictions on the amount of pollution that can be produced, and time crunches on when certain changes by companies using polluting inventions need to be completed by. It is up to the state that is implementing policy and the pollution-contributing businesses to work towards the implemented legal requirements in order to reach environmental goals by a set date.
  • 405
  • 18 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Technologies for Biogas Upgradation
Biogas is a mixture of CO2, CH4, H2S, is an eco-friendly and inexpensive renewable biofuel. This mixture of gases restricts biogas utilization in vehicular fuel, CHPs, therefore, biogas upgradation becomes a necessary step.
  • 1.3K
  • 13 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Technology, Policy, and Market Trends of NGV Batteries
In recent years, with the rapid spread of next-generation vehicles (NGVs), China, Japan, and South Korea (CJK) have been leading the development of vehicle batteries. For NGV batteries, higher energy density, higher safety, and longer lifespan are important issues in the future. Along with the construction of recycling and reuse systems, it is expected that the vehicle battery market will further expand in countries around the world in respect to their own characteristics of specific development strategies and policy trends.
  • 617
  • 19 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Tectonic Archaeology
Tectonic Archaeology is conceived as an umbrella term for efforts to deal with evidence of volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and tsunami in the archaeological record and the consequences for society. It also can serve as a foundation for Geoarchaeology in general.
  • 945
  • 28 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Tectonic Evolution of the JLJB, North China Craton
The Jiao-Liao-Ji Belt (JLJB) is the most representative Paleoproterozoic orogenic belt in the North China Craton (NCC). The sedimentation, metamorphism and magmatism of the Ji’an Group and associated granites provide significant insights into the tectonic evolution of the JLJB. The rock assemblages indicate a transformation of the tectonic environment from a passive margin to an active continental margin following the onset of plate convergence and subduction. The A2-type gneissic granite (Qianzhuogou pluton) is formed in a subsequent back-arc basin extension setting at 2.20–2.14 Ga. The Ji’an Group was finally deposited in an active continental margin during the closure of a back-arc basin at 2.14–2.0 Ga. Then, the sediments were involved in a continent–arc–continent collision between the Longgang and Nangrim blocks at ~1.95 Ga. This process was accompanied by HP granulite-facies metamorphism at ~1.90 Ga. The subsequent exhumation and regional extension resulted in decompression melting during 1.90–1.86 Ga, producing metamorphism with an isothermal decompression clockwise P–T path. The resulting metapelites are characterized by perthite + sillimanite, and mafic granulites are characterized by orthopyroxene + clinopyroxene.
  • 327
  • 26 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Tectonic Geodesy Synthesis of the North Aegean Region
Satellite geodesy, an indispensable modern tool for determining upper-crust deformation, can be used to assess tectonically active structures and improve our understanding of the geotectonic evolution in tectonically active regions. A region fulfilling these criteria is the North Aegean, part of the Eastern Mediterranean. It is one of the most tectonically, and hence, seismically, active regions worldwide, which makes it ideal for applying a satellite geodesy investigation. 
  • 224
  • 11 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Temperate Climate
In geography, the temperate or tepid climates of Earth occur in the middle latitudes, which span between the tropics and the polar regions of Earth. In most climate classifications, temperate climates refer to the climate zone between 35 and 50 north and south latitudes (between the subarctic and subtropical climates). These zones generally have wider temperature ranges throughout the year and more distinct seasonal changes compared to tropical climates, where such variations are often small. They typically feature four distinct seasons, Summer the warmest, Autumn the transitioning season to Winter, the colder season, and Spring the transitioning season from winter back into summer. In the northern hemisphere, the year starts with winter, transitions in the first half year through spring into summer, which is in mid-year, then at the second half year through autumn into winter at year-end. In the southern hemisphere, the seasons are swapped, with summer between years and winter in mid-year. The temperate zones (latitudes from 23.5° to the polar circles at about 66.5°, north and south) are where the widest seasonal changes occur, with most climates found in it having some influence from both the tropics and the poles. The subtropics (latitudes from about 23.5° to 35°, north and south) have temperate climates that have the least seasonal change and the warmest in winter, while at the other end, Boreal climates located from 55 to 65 north latitude have the most seasonal changes and long and severe winters. In temperate climates, not only do latitudinal positions influence temperature changes, but sea currents, prevailing wind direction, continentality (how large a landmass is), and altitude also shape temperate climates. The Köppen climate classification defines a climate as "temperate" when the mean temperature is above −3 °C (26.6 °F) but below 18 °C (64.4 °F) in the coldest month. However, other climate classifications set the minimum at 0 °C (32.0 °F).
  • 26.6K
  • 08 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Temperature and Root System of Two Lupine Species
The aim of this entry was to assess the effect of elevated temperature on the growth, morphology and spatial orientation of lupine roots at the initial stages of development and on the formation of lupine root architecture at later stages. Two lupine species were studied—the invasive Lupinus polyphyllus Lindl. and the non-invasive L. luteus L. The plants were grown in climate chambers under 25 °C and simulated warming at 30 °C conditions. The angle of root curvature towards the vector of gravity was measured at the 48th hour of growth, and during a 4-h period after 90° reorientation. Root biometrical, histological measurements were carried out on 7-day-old and 30-day-old plants. The elevation of 5 °C affected the root formation of the two lupine species differently. The initial roots of L. polyphyllus were characterized by worse spatial orientation, reduced growth and reduced mitotic index of root apical meristem at 30 °C compared with 25 °C. The length of primary roots of 30-day-old lupines and the number of lateral roots decreased by 14% and 16%, respectively. 
  • 1.0K
  • 18 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Temperature Record of the Past 1000 Years
The temperature record of the past 1,000 years or longer is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 170 years at a global scale. Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional: the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that "Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely the highest in at least the past 1,300 years." The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century. As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions, using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records, with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century "shaft" appears. Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods. Individual proxy records, such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology, are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap. Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions: tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures (within the tropics trees do not form rings) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean. Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions, incorporating proxies such as lake sediments, ice cores and corals which are found in different regions, and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records. The "Composite Plus Scaling" (CPS) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction (CFR) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas, making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models. During the 1,900 years before the 20th century, it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100, with peaks at different times in different regions. This has been called the Medieval Warm Period, and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age. In the hockey stick controversy, contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present, and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions.
  • 623
  • 29 Nov 2022
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