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Topic Review
Membrane Proteins on Artificial Lipid Membranes
Membrane proteins play an important role in key cellular functions, such as signal transduction, apoptosis, and metabolism. Therefore, structural and functional studies of these proteins are essential in fields such as fundamental biology, medical science, pharmacology, biotechnology, and bioengineering.
  • 971
  • 04 May 2023
Topic Review
Pubertal Mammary Gland
The mammary gland is a compound, branched tubuloalveolar structure and a major characteristic of mammals. The mammary gland has evolved from epidermal apocrine glands, the skin glands as an accessory reproductive organ to support postnatal survival of offspring by producing milk as a source of nutrition. The mammary gland development begins during embryogenesis as a rudimentary structure that grows into an elementary branched ductal tree and is embedded in one end of a larger mammary fat pad at birth. At the onset of ovarian function at puberty, the rudimentary ductal system undergoes dramatic morphogenetic change with ductal elongation and branching. During pregnancy, the alveolar differentiation and tertiary branching are completed, and during lactation, the mature milk-producing glands eventually develop. The early stages of mammary development are hormonal independent, whereas during puberty and pregnancy, mammary gland development is hormonal dependent.
  • 971
  • 18 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Implications of One-Carbon and Polyamine Metabolism for Cancer
Cancer metabolic reprogramming is essential for maintaining cancer cell survival and rapid replication. A common target of this metabolic reprogramming is one-carbon metabolism which is notable for its function in DNA synthesis, protein and DNA methylation, and antioxidant production. Polyamines are a key output of one-carbon metabolism with widespread effects on gene expression and signaling. One-carbon metabolism includes the methionine cycle, which is linked to the folate cycle, polyamine synthesis, and the trans-sulphuration pathway. 
  • 970
  • 17 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Chemical and Biological Characteristics of Hydrogen Sulfide
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S), as an environmental toxin, is now confirmed to be a biological mediator and plays essential roles in normal physiology and in the responses to different stresses. H2S also regulates the responses to oxidative stress by interplaying with reactive oxygen species (ROS) at multiple levels and protects mitochondrial function, maintaining mitochondrial homeostasis.
  • 970
  • 12 Oct 2023
Topic Review
Tibolone
Low bone mineral density (osteoporosis) is associated with vertebral and nonvertebral fractures in postmenopausal women. Tibolone is a low-risk hormone replacement therapy alternative to estrogen therapy, effective in the treatment of menopausal symptoms and prevention of bone loss, but the evidence is controversial. This study with meta-analysis summarizes the clinical trials of the tibolone effect on percentage change of bone mineral density in the lumbar spine, femoral neck, and total hip in postmenopausal women.
  • 969
  • 01 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Lemur Tyrosine Kinases
The members of the Lemur Tyrosine Kinases (LMTK1-3) subfamily constitute a group of three membrane-anchored kinases. They are known to influence a wide variety of key cellular events, often affecting cell proliferation and apoptosis. They have been discovered to be involved in cancer, in that they impact various signalling pathways that influence cell proliferation, migration, and invasiveness. 
  • 969
  • 04 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Maturation of Mitochondrial [4Fe-4S]-Containing Proteins
The importance of mitochondria in mammalian cells is widely known. Several biochemical reactions and pathways take place within mitochondria: among them, there are those involving the biogenesis of the iron–sulfur (Fe-S) clusters. The latter are evolutionarily conserved, ubiquitous inorganic cofactors, performing a variety of functions, such as electron transport, enzymatic catalysis, DNA maintenance, and gene expression regulation. The synthesis and distribution of Fe-S clusters are strictly controlled cellular processes that involve several mitochondrial proteins that specifically interact each other to form a complex machinery (Iron Sulfur Cluster assembly machinery, ISC machinery hereafter). This machinery ensures the correct assembly of both [2Fe-2S] and [4Fe-4S] clusters and their insertion in the mitochondrial target proteins. 
  • 969
  • 02 Aug 2022
Topic Review
CMGC Kinases in Health and Cancer
CMGC kinases, encompassing cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), glycogen synthase kinases (GSKs), and CDC-like kinases (CLKs), play pivotal roles in cellular signaling pathways, including cell cycle regulation, proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, and gene expression regulation. The dysregulation and aberrant activation of these kinases have been implicated in cancer development and progression, making them attractive therapeutic targets. Kinase inhibitors targeting CMGC kinases, such as CDK4/6 inhibitors and BRAF/MEK inhibitors, have demonstrated clinical success in treating specific cancer types.
  • 969
  • 01 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Endomembrane System and Abiotic Stress in Plants
The sustainable exploitation of agri-environmental systems focuses more and more on practices where crops and plant species are adapted to edaphoclimatic conditions. Recent studies have shown that increased stress tolerance is related to the reorganization of cell membranes that sometimes lead to major changes in the solutes’ homeostasis and water transfer. When under stress, protein trafficking in plants is compromised, usually leading to changes in the endomembrane system that may include protein transport through unconventional routes and alteration of morphology, activity and content of key organelles, as the ER and the vacuole. Such events provide the tools for cells to adapt and overcome the challenges brought on by stress.
  • 969
  • 18 Feb 2022
Topic Review
LncRNAs in Translation
Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), a group of non-protein coding RNAs with lengths of more than 200 nucleotides, exert their effects by binding to DNA, mRNA, microRNA, and proteins and regulate gene expression at the transcriptional, post-transcriptional, translational, and post-translational levels. Depending on cellular location, lncRNAs are involved in a wide range of cellular functions, including chromatin modification, transcriptional activation, transcriptional interference, scaffolding and regulation of translational machinery.
  • 966
  • 19 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Development of Phosphodiesterase–Protein-Kinase Complexes
Phosphodiesterases (PDEs) hydrolyze cyclic nucleotides to modulate multiple signaling events in cells. PDEs are recognized to actively associate with cyclic nucleotide receptors (protein kinases, PKs) in larger macromolecular assemblies referred to as signalosomes. Complexation of PDEs with PKs generates an expanded active site that enhances PDE activity. This facilitates signalosome-associated PDEs to preferentially catalyze active hydrolysis of cyclic nucleotides bound to PKs and aid in signal termination. PDEs are important drug targets, and current strategies for inhibitor discovery are based entirely on targeting conserved PDE catalytic domains. This often results in inhibitors with cross-reactivity amongst closely related PDEs and attendant unwanted side effects. 
  • 966
  • 22 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Phytochrome-Interacting Proteins
Phytochromes are photoreceptors of plants, fungi, slime molds bacteria and heterokonts. These biliproteins sense red and far-red light and undergo light-induced changes between the two spectral forms, Pr and Pfr. Photoconversion triggered by light induces conformational changes in the bilin chromophore around the ring C-D-connecting methine bridge and is followed by conformational changes in the protein. For plant phytochromes, multiple phytochrome interacting proteins that mediate signal transduction, nuclear translocation or protein degradation have been identified. Few interacting proteins are known as bacterial or fungal phytochromes.
  • 966
  • 10 Jan 2024
Topic Review
RNA Interference Past and Future Applications in Plants
Antisense RNA was observed to elicit plant disease resistance and post-translational gene silencing (PTGS). The universal mechanism of RNA interference (RNAi) was shown to be induced by double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), an intermediate produced during virus replication. Plant viruses with a single-stranded positive-sense RNA genome have been instrumental in the discovery and characterization of systemic RNA silencing and suppression.  Application of exogenously applied dsRNA is proving to be a potent strategy for delivery to improve crop performance.
  • 964
  • 29 Jun 2023
Topic Review
Mitochondrial Diseases
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) diseases are a group of maternally inherited genetic disorders caused by a lack of energy production.
  • 963
  • 04 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Plant Toxins: Recombinant Production as Components of Immunotoxins
Plant toxins that target eukaryotic 28S ribosomal RNA (Ribosome Inactivating Proteins, RIPs), such as the catalytic (A) chain of ricin (a dimeric A-B toxin from Ricinus communis) and saporin (a single chain A toxin from Saponaria officinalis), have found widespread use in the construction of immunotoxins. Both these toxins depurinate ribosomal 28S RNA at a specific site (GAGA loop) inhibiting the binding of elongation factor 2 and blocking protein synthesis. Their high toxicity towards eukaryotic cells has thus justified their use as components of chimeric toxins in cancer treatment. A brief description of recombinant RIPs production is given.
  • 963
  • 02 Jan 2024
Topic Review
Bulk purification of RNA–Protein Complexes
The ribonome interconnects the proteome and the transcriptome. Specific biology is situated at this interface, which can be studied in bulk using omics approaches. In this entry, we focus on both RNA- and ribonucleoprotein-(RNP) centric methods. These methods can be used to study the dynamics of the ribonome in response to a stimulus. The purpose of this entry is to provide and discuss an overview of the currently available RNA- and RNP-centric approaches to study RNPs. 
  • 962
  • 19 Aug 2020
Topic Review
Autoimmunity and Inflammation of RA
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic inflammatory autoimmune disease identified by continuous joint inflammation promoting cartilage and bone damage, incapacity, and eventually systemic complications.
  • 962
  • 19 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Mammalian Unfolded Protein Response Transducers
The unfolded protein response (UPR) bears an evolutionary conserved, dual sensitivity to both protein-folding imbalances in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) lumen and aberrant compositions of the ER membrane, referred to as lipid bilayer stress (LBS). Through transcriptional and non-transcriptional mechanisms, the UPR upregulates the protein folding capacity of the ER and balances the production of proteins and lipids to maintain a functional secretory pathway.
  • 962
  • 03 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Naturally Occurring Aristolochic Acid Analogues
Aristolochic acids are known for nephrotoxicity, and implicated in multiple cancer types such as hepatocellular carcinomas.
  • 962
  • 25 Feb 2022
Topic Review
FNDC5/Irisin System in Neuroinflammation
Irisin, the circulating peptide originating from fibronectin type III domain-containing protein 5 (FNDC5), is mainly expressed by muscle fibers under peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha (PGC1α) control during exercise. In addition to several beneficial effects on health, physical activity positively affects nervous system functioning, particularly the hippocampus, resulting in amelioration of cognition impairments. Recently, FNDC5/irisin detection in hippocampal neurons and the presence of irisin in the cerebrospinal fluid opened a new intriguing chapter in irisin history. Interestingly, in the hippocampus of mice, exercise increases FNDC5 levels and upregulates brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression. BDNF, displaying neuroprotection and anti-inflammatory effects, is mainly produced by microglia and astrocytes. 
  • 961
  • 21 May 2021
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