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Topic Review
ASFV Genome Replication and Packaging
Genome condensation and packaging are essential processes in the life cycle of viruses. Mimivirus and many other nucleocytoplasmic large DNA virus (NCLDV) subfamilies have evolved a unique genome packaging mechanism that is comparable to chromosome segregation in bacteria and archaea and requires a number of specific enzymes, such as packaging ATPases, recombinases, DNA polymerases, helicases, and topoisomerases, as well as histones or histone-like proteins. Although the mechanisms of assembly and genome encapsidation in African Swine Fever Virus (ASFV) have not been fully characterized, the similarities in genome structure with Poxviruses and data from electron microscopy suggest that the ASFV packaging machinery is similar to Mimivirus and other NCLDVs. ASFV encodes up to 70 structural proteins, 16 of which, at least, are thought to be involved in assembly of the virus particle and include a predicted packaging A32L ATPase (B354L), a lambda-like recombinase (D345L), a type II topoisomerase (P1192R),  and the histone-like DNA-binding protein pA104R.
  • 1.3K
  • 13 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Orthobunyaviruses
Orthobunyaviruses (OBVs) are arthropod-borne viruses that are structurally simple, with a trisegmented, negative-sense RNA genome and only four structural proteins.
  • 1.3K
  • 09 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Herd Immunity against Viral Diseases
Microbiome is the preeminent factor to maintain the efficacy of vaccine platform. The inception of herd immunity in society is depending upon food habits, microbiome symbiosis, environmental factors, and network among people with each other.  Rigorous pan-India polio vaccination program for the last 30 years develops heterologous immunity providing cardinal protection against the COVID-19.
  • 1.3K
  • 09 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Diagnosis of Herpes Simplex Virus
Herpes is a widespread viral infection caused by the herpes simplex virus (HSV) that has no permanent cure to date. There are two subtypes, HSV-1 and HSV-2, that are known to cause a variety of symptoms, ranging from acute to chronic. HSV is highly contagious and can be transmitted via any type of physical contact. Additionally, viral shedding can also happen from asymptomatic infections. Thus, early and accurate detection of HSV is needed to prevent the transmission of this infection. Herpes can be diagnosed in two ways, by either detecting the presence of the virus in lesions or the antibodies in the blood. Different detection techniques are available based on both laboratory and point of care (POC) devices. Laboratory techniques include different biochemical assays, microscopy, and nucleic acid amplification. In contrast, POC techniques include microfluidics-based tests that enable on-spot testing.
  • 1.3K
  • 28 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Hepatitis B Virus Nucleocapsid
Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a small enveloped DNA virus which replicates its tiny 3.2 kb genome by reverse transcription inside an icosahedral nucleocapsid, formed by a single ~180 amino acid capsid, or core, protein (Cp). HBV causes chronic hepatitis B (CHB), a severe liver disease responsible for nearly a million deaths each year. Dynamic changes in Cp chemical modification and capsid conformation are crucial in the viral life-cycle and represent a promising new antiviral target.
  • 1.3K
  • 07 Mar 2022
Topic Review
New COVID-19 Vaccinations
Vaccination can be, in fact, an efficient way to mitigate the devastating effect of the pandemic and offer protection to some vulnerable strata of the population (i.e., the elderly) and reduce the social and economic burden of the current crisis.
  • 1.3K
  • 25 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Respiratory Syncytial Virus Vaccines
Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) is the main cause of acute respiratory tract infections in infants and it also induces significant disease in the elderly, with a potentially severe clinical course and a large number of deaths in developing countries and of intensive care hospitalizations worldwide. To date, prevention strategies against RSV infection are based on hygienic measures and passive immunization with humanized monoclonal antibodies limited to selected high-risk children due to their high costs. The development of a safe and effective vaccine is a global health need and an important objective of research in this field. A growing number of RSV vaccine candidates in different formats (particle-based vaccines, vector-based vaccines, subunit vaccines, and live-attenuated vaccines) are being developed and are now at different stages. While waiting for commercially available safe and effective vaccines, immune prophylaxis in selected groups of high-risk populations is still mandatory.
  • 1.3K
  • 04 Jan 2021
Topic Review
The Hepatitis E Virus
In the 1980s, non-A, non-B hepatitis (NANB) was identified to be hepatitis E virus (HEV), and found to be the causative agent of large scale viral hepatitis outbreaks in developing countries.  One of the distinctive epidemiological features of an HEV outbreak is its association with a high pregnancy mortality rate, potentially reaching up to 35% mortality. HEV is ow recognized as the leading cause of acute viral hepatitis worldwide. HEV is a 7.2 kb  quasi-enveloped, single-stranded RNA virus with a positive-sense genome.  HEV has been difficult to grow in cell culture necessitating animal models to understand pathology.  Multiple animal models have been attempted to replicate pregnancy mortality and those trials are summarized herein.
  • 1.3K
  • 29 Mar 2023
Topic Review
HIV-1 Gag Mutations in Protease Inhibitors Resistance
HIV protease inhibitors against the viral protease are often hampered by drug resistance mutations in protease and in the viral substrate Gag. To overcome this drug resistance and inhibit viral maturation, targeting Gag alongside protease rather than targeting protease alone may be more efficient. 
  • 1.3K
  • 29 Mar 2022
Topic Review
CRISPR/Cas9-Based Gene-Editing Technology
CRISPR/Cas has been demonstrated as a more powerful, simple, efficient, and straightforward approach for editing viral genomes with immense research potential. 
  • 1.3K
  • 18 May 2021
Topic Review
Antiviral Drugs Employing Toll-like Receptors in SARS-CoV-2
The innate immune system facilitates defense mechanisms against pathogen invasion and cell damage. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) assist in the activation of the innate immune system by binding to pathogenic ligands. This leads to the generation of intracellular signaling cascades including the biosynthesis of molecular mediators. TLRs on cell membranes are adept at recognizing viral components. Viruses can modulate the innate immune response with the help of proteins and RNAs that downregulate or upregulate the expression of various TLRs. In the case of COVID-19, molecular modulators such as type 1 interferons interfere with signaling pathways in the host cells, leading to an inflammatory response. Coronaviruses are responsible for an enhanced immune signature of inflammatory chemokines and cytokines. TLRs have been employed as therapeutic agents in viral infections as numerous antiviral Food and Drug Administration-approved drugs are TLR agonists. 
  • 1.3K
  • 30 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Nasal Air Conditioning and SARS-CoV-2
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), as with the influenza virus, has been shown to spread more rapidly during winter. Severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), which can follow SARS-CoV-2 infection, disproportionately affects older persons and males as well as people living in temperate zone countries with a tropical ancestry. The available data are consistent with optimal warming and humidifying of inspired air by the nose (nasal air conditioning) being essential for minimising SARS-CoV-2 infectivity of the upper respiratory tract (URT)  and, as a consequence, severe COVID-19. 
  • 1.3K
  • 04 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Extracellular Vesicles-Based Therapy for COVID-19: An Update
COVID-19 pandemic has become a serious concern and negatively impacted the public health and economy. It primarily targets the lungs causing acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS); however, it may also lead to multiple organ failure (MOF) and enhanced mortality rates. Hence, there is an urgent need to develop effective and potential therapeutic strategies for COVID-19 patients. Extracellular vesicles(EVs) are released from various types of cells that participate in intercellular communication to maintain physiological and pathological processes. EVs derived from various cellular origins have revealed suppressive effects on the cytokine storm during a systemic hyper-inflammatory state of severe COVID-19, leading to enhanced alveolar fluid clearance, promoted epithelial and endothelial recovery, and cell proliferation. Being the smallest subclass of EVs, exosomes offer striking characteristics such as cell targeting, nano-carrier for drug delivery, high biocompatibility, safety, and low-immunogenicity, hence renders them a potential cell-free therapeutic candidate against the pathogenesis of the various disease. Following these properties, numerous studiesand clinical trials have been performed to assess their safety and therapeuticefficacyagainst COVID-19.
  • 1.3K
  • 25 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Basic Amino Acids and SARS-CoV-2
Amino acids have been implicated with virus infection and replication. Here, we demonstrate the effects of two basic amino acids, arginine and lysine, and their ester derivatives on infection of two enveloped viruses, SARS-CoV-2, and influenza A virus. We found that lysine and its ester derivative can efficiently block infection of both viruses in vitro. Furthermore, the arginine ester derivative caused a significant boost in virus infection. Studies on their mechanism of action revealed that the compounds potentially disturb virus uncoating rather than virus attachment and endosomal acidification. Our findings suggest that lysine supplementation and the reduction of arginine-rich food intake can be considered as prophylactic and therapeutic regimens against these viruses while also providing a paradigm for the development of broad-spectrum antivirals.
  • 1.3K
  • 21 Jul 2021
Topic Review
Extracellular Vesicles
Tobacco smoking is prevalent among people living with HIV (PLWH). It is known to increase viral replication and exacerbate HIV associated conditions. Some reports demonstrate a conflicting impact of cigarette smoke on PLWHA in terms of neurocognitive disorders, which further strengthens the necessity to study whether cigarette smoking is a causative factor for HAND in PLWHA. One possible mechanistic pathway of tobacco smoking-induced HIV pathogenesis and HAND could be the transportation of oxidative stress-related agents and inflammatory modulators via extracellular vesicles (EVs). EV are nanosized vesicles, that are formed and released from most of the mammalian cells and these are considered as cellular messengers because of their capability to transport the functional messages from cells to other distant cells. This review focuses on recent advances in the field of EVs with an emphasis on smoking-mediated HIV pathogenesis and HIV-associated neuropathogenesis.
  • 1.3K
  • 06 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Tripartite Motif Family
The tripartite motif (TRIM) family comprises at least 80 members in humans, with most having ubiquitin or SUMO E3 ligase activity conferred by their N-terminal RING domain. TRIMs regulate a wide range of processes in ubiquitination- or sumoylation-dependent manners in most cases, and fewer as adaptors. Their roles in the regulation of viral infections, autophagy, cell cycle progression, DNA damage and other stress responses, and carcinogenesis are being increasingly appreciated, and their E3 ligase activities are attractive targets for developing specific immunotherapeutic strategies for immune diseases and cancers.
  • 1.3K
  • 22 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Mucosal Immune Responses to Respiratory Syncytial Virus
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a single-stranded, negative-sense RNA virus with a genome comprising 10 genes encoding 11 proteins. While RSV triggers common cold symptoms in healthy adults, it poses a much greater threat to infants and the elderly. A fresh focus on studies of RSV pathogenesis in the airway mucosa is set to revolutionise our understanding of this common and important infection.
  • 1.3K
  • 22 Apr 2022
Topic Review
AlphaFold Predictions in Viral Research
AlphaFold, a modern deep-learning algorithm, enables the prediction of protein structure to a high level of accuracy. It has been applied in numerous studies in various areas of biology and medicine. Viruses are biological entities infecting eukaryotic and procaryotic organisms. They can pose a danger for humans and economically significant animals and plants, but they can also be useful for biological control, suppressing populations of pests and pathogens. AlphaFold can be used for studies of molecular mechanisms of viral infection to facilitate several activities, including drug design.
  • 1.3K
  • 10 May 2023
Topic Review
Human Coronavirus Cell Receptors
Coronaviruses interact with protein or carbohydrate receptors through their spike proteins to infect cells. Even if the known protein receptors for these viruses have no evolutionary relationships, they do share ontological commonalities that the virus might leverage to exacerbate the pathophysiology. ANPEP/CD13, DPP IV/CD26, and ACE2 are the three protein receptors that are known to be exploited by several human coronaviruses. These receptors are moonlighting enzymes involved in several physiological processes such as digestion, metabolism, and blood pressure regulation; moreover, the three proteins are expressed in kidney, intestine, endothelium, and other tissues/cell types.
  • 1.3K
  • 03 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Gene Therapy for Malignant and Benign Gynaecological Disorders
Gene therapy aims to introduce or modify genetic material into target cells, thus altering their function, usually by either restoring a lost function or initiating a new one. Although it was initially employed for the treatment of inherited genetic diseases, gene therapy was soon identified as an effective approach for the treatment of both gynaecological malignancies such as ovarian, cervical, and endometrial cancer and certain benign gynaecological abnormalities, such as leiomyomas, endometriosis, placental, and embryo implantation disorders.  There are two main strategies for specific and efficient gene delivery to cancer and non-cancer cells, and these involve either viral or non-viral systems.
  • 1.3K
  • 22 Aug 2022
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