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Topic Review
Remote Ischemic Preconditioning
Autophagy is a cellular process by which mammalian cells degrade and assist in recycling damaged organelles and proteins. This study aimed to ascertain the role of autophagy in RIPC-induced cardioprotection. Sprague Dawley rats were subjected to RIPC at the hindlimb followed by 30 min transient blockade of the left coronary artery to simulate I/R injury. Hindlimb muscle and the heart were excised 24 h post reperfusion. RIPC prior to I/R upregulated autophagy in the rat heart at 24 h post reperfusion. In vitro, autophagy inhibition or stimulation prior to RIPC respectively, either ameliorated or stimulated the cardioprotective effect, measured as improved cell viability to mimic the preconditioning effect. Recombinant IL-6 treatment prior to I/R increased in vitro autophagy in a dose dependent manner activating the JAK-STAT pathway without affecting the other kinase pathways such as p38 MAPK, and GSK-3β pathways. Prior to I/R, in vitro inhibition of the JAK-STAT pathway reduced autophagy upregulation despite recombinant IL-6 pre-treatment. Autophagy is an essential component of RIPC-induced cardioprotection that may upregulate autophagy through an IL-6/JAK-STAT dependent mechanism, thus identifying a potentially new therapeutic option for the treatment of ischemic heart disease.
  • 686
  • 29 Oct 2020
Topic Review
The Circadian Clock from Birth to Death
The circadian clock is a prominent regulator of physiology. Most lifeforms on earth use endogenous, so-called circadian clocks to adapt to 24-h cycles in environmental demands driven by the planet’s rotation around its axis. Interactions with the environment change over the course of a lifetime, and so does regulation of the circadian clock system.
  • 683
  • 10 Mar 2023
Topic Review
The Relationship between Iron and Inflammatory Bowel Diseases
Inflammatory Bowel Diseases, including ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn’s disease (CD), are chronic, relapsing inflammatory conditions of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Interactions between the environmental factors and commensal intestinal microflora in genetically predisposed individuals are considered the leading cause of an inappropriate immune response and as a result, the development of inflammatory disease. Iron is an indispensable nutrient for life. A lack of it leads to iron deficiency anaemia (IDA), which currently affects about 1.2 billion people worldwide. The primary means of IDA treatment is oral or parenteral iron supplementation. This can be burdened with numerous side effects such as oxidative stress, systemic and local-intestinal inflammation, dysbiosis, carcinogenic processes and gastrointestinal adverse events.
  • 671
  • 15 Sep 2022
Topic Review
The Complex Interaction between P53 and miRNAs
P53 responds to stress in a variety of ways ranging from activating survival-promotion pathways to triggering programmed cell death to eliminate damaged cells. In physiological stress generated by any external or internal condition that challenges cell homeostasis, P53 exerts its function as a transcription factor for target genes or by regulating the expression and maturation of a class of small non-coding RNA molecules (miRNAs).
  • 668
  • 26 May 2022
Topic Review
Pancreatic Cancer Treatment by Nab-Paclitaxel with Gemcitabine Combination
Pancreatic cancer has one of the highest mortality rates among cancers, and a combination of nab-paclitaxel with gemcitabine remains the cornerstone of first-line therapy. Nab-paclitaxel with gemcitabine in combination with other therapeutic agents can be new treatment strategies in pancreatic cancer. Seven therapeutic agents (ibrutinib, necuparanib, tarextumab, apatorsen, cisplatin, enzalutamide, and momelotinib) are found. 
  • 664
  • 01 Mar 2022
Topic Review
The Brain at High Altitude
The brain requires over one-fifth of the total body oxygen demand for normal functioning. At high altitude (HA), the lower atmospheric oxygen pressure inevitably challenges the brain, affecting voluntary spatial attention, cognitive processing, and attention speed after short-term, long-term, or lifespan exposure. Molecular responses to HA are controlled mainly by hypoxia-inducible factors.
  • 661
  • 29 Jun 2023
Topic Review
Extracellular Vesicles Based Drug Delivery
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) play major roles in intracellular communication and participate in several biological functions in both normal and pathological conditions. Surface modification of EVs via various ligands, such as proteins, peptides, or aptamers, offers great potential as a means to achieve targeted delivery of therapeutic cargo, i.e., in drug delivery systems (DDS). This study summarizes recent studies pertaining to the development of EV-based DDS and its advantages compared to conventional nano drug delivery systems (NDDS). 
  • 660
  • 30 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Physiology and Pathology of Salivary Glands
Salivary glands are essential structures in the oral cavity. A variety of diseases, such as cancer, autoimmune diseases, infections and physical traumas, can alter the functionality of these glands, greatly impacting the quality of life of patients. Understanding the cellular and molecular control of salivary glands function is highly relevant for therapeutic purposes. Three major salivary glands account for more than 90% of salivary secretion: the parotid gland (PG) is mainly composed of serous acini-secreting α-amylase-rich saliva; the sublingual gland (SL) secretes mucous, a viscous solution rich in mucins; the submandibular gland (SMG) is composed by a mixed population of acini with a mucous and serous function. 
  • 659
  • 07 Feb 2022
Topic Review
South African Medicinal Plants in Metabolic Disorders Management
Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a prevalent, multifactorial and complex disease that is associated with an increased risk of developing diabetes and other major cardiovascular complications. The rise in the global prevalence of MetS has been attributed to genetic, epigenetic, and environmental factors. The adoption of sedentary lifestyles that are characterized by low physical activity and the consumption of high-energy diets contributes to MetS development. Current management criteria for MetS risk factors involve changes in lifestyle and the use of pharmacological agents that target specific biochemical pathways involved in the metabolism of nutrients. Pharmaceutical drugs are usually expensive and are associated with several undesirable side effects. Alternative management strategies of MetS risk factors involve the use of medicinal plants that are considered to have multiple therapeutic targets and are easily accessible. Medicinal plants contain several different biologically active compounds that provide health benefits.
  • 658
  • 18 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Inflammation and Platelets
Platelets are the second most abundant blood component after red blood cells and can participate in a variety of physiological and pathological functions. Beyond its traditional role in hemostasis and thrombosis, it also plays an indispensable role in inflammatory diseases.
  • 658
  • 17 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Plasticity in Subcortical Visual Areas
Visual plasticity is classically considered to occur essentially in the primary and secondary cortical areas. Subcortical visual areas such as the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus (dLGN) or the superior colliculus (SC) have long been held as basic structures responsible for a stable and defined function. In this model, the dLGN was considered as a relay of visual information travelling from the retina to cortical areas and the SC as a sensory integrator orienting body movements towards visual targets. However, recent findings suggest that both dLGN and SC neurons express functional plasticity, adding unexplored layers of complexity to their previously attributed functions. The existence of neuronal plasticity at the level of visual subcortical areas redefines our approach of the visual system.
  • 658
  • 22 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Proteolysis of Legume Proteins during Seed Germination
Legume seed protein is an important source of nutrition, but generally it is less digestible than animal protein. Poor protein digestibility in legume seeds and seedlings may partly reflect defenses against herbivores. Protein changes during germination typically increase proteolysis and digestibility, by lowering the levels of anti-nutrient protease inhibitors, activating proteases, and breaking down storage proteins (including allergens). Germinating legume sprouts also show striking increases in free amino acids (especially asparagine), but their roles in host defense or other processes are not known. 
  • 656
  • 08 May 2023
Topic Review
Primary Cilia: Sensory Hubs for Nitric Oxide Signaling
Primary cilia are sensory organelles present on the surface of most polarized cells. Primary cilia have been demonstrated to play many sensory cell roles, including mechanosensory and chemosensory cell functions. It is known that the primary cilia of vascular endothelial cells will bend in response to fluid shear stress, which leads to the biochemical production and release of nitric oxide, and this process is impaired in endothelial cells that lack primary cilia function or structure. In this entry, we will provide an overview of ciliogenesis and the differences between primary cilia and multicilia, as well as an overview of our published work on primary cilia and nitric oxide, and a brief perspective on their implications in health and disease.
  • 655
  • 04 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Calcium Sources to Somatic Release of Serotonin
The soma, dendrites and axon of neurons may display calcium-dependent release of transmitters and peptides. Such release is named extrasynaptic for occurring in absence of synaptic structures. Emphasis is given to the somatic release of serotonin by the classical leech Retzius neuron, which has allowed detailed studies on the fine steps from excitation to exocytosis. Trains of action potentials induce transmembrane calcium entry through L-type channels. For action potential frequencies above 5 Hz, summation of calcium transients on individual action potentials activates the second calcium source: ryanodine receptors produce calcium-induced calcium release. The resulting calcium tsunami activates mitochondrial ATP synthesis to fuel transport of vesicles to the plasma membrane. Serotonin that is released maintains a large-scale exocytosis by activating the third calcium source: serotonin autoreceptors coupled to phospholipase C promote IP3 production. Activated IP3 receptors in peripheral endoplasmic reticulum release calcium that promotes vesicle fusion. The Swiss-clock workings of the machinery for somatic exocytosis has a striking disadvantage. The essential calcium-releasing endoplasmic reticulum near the plasma membrane hinders the vesicle transport, drastically reducing the thermodynamic efficiency of the ATP expenses and elevating the energy cost of release. 
  • 655
  • 09 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Microglial Potassium Channels: From Homeostasis to Neurodegeneration
The growing interest in the role of microglia in the progression of many neurodegenerative diseases is developing in an ever-expedited manner, in part thanks to emergent new tools for studying the morphological and functional features of the CNS. The discovery of specific biomarkers of the microglia phenotype could find application in a wide range of human diseases, and creates opportunities for the discovery and development of tailored therapeutic interventions. 
  • 652
  • 21 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Physiological Significance of Esophageal TRPV4 Channel
Transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 (TRPV4) is a non-selective cation channel that is broadly expressed in different human tissues, including the digestive system, where it acts as a molecular sensor and a transducer that regulates a variety of functional activities.
  • 635
  • 27 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Role of mTOR Complex 1 in Longevity
Decreased content and activity of the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) signalling pathway, as well as the mTOR complex 1 (mTORC1) itself, are key traits for animal species and human longevity. Since mTORC1 acts as a master regulator of intracellular metabolism, it is responsible, at least in part, for the longevous phenotype. Conversely, increased content and activity of mTOR signalling and mTORC1 are hallmarks of ageing. Additionally, constitutive and aberrant activity of mTORC1 is also found in age-related diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and cancer. The downstream processes regulated through this network are diverse, and depend upon nutrient availability.
  • 628
  • 23 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Fibrinogen, Fibrinogen Chains, Its Derivatives, and Fibrinogen-Like Proteins
Fibrinogen (Fg), its derivatives and Fg-like other proteins play a considerable role in many diseases. For example, increased levels of Fg have been found in many inflammatory diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease, multiple sclerosis, traumatic brain injury, rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, and cancer. Associations of Fg, Fg chains, its derivatives and Fg-like proteins with various diseases have been established and their specific effects and the mechanisms of actions gradually become more evident. 
  • 627
  • 27 Jul 2022
Topic Review
CNPase
As an unconventional PDE, CNPase catalyzes 2′,3′-cyclic nucleotides as substrates [9], which are reported to impair mitochondrial integrity and accelerate the opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP). As a mitochondrial protein, protein–protein interactions between the functional complexes I–V of the mitochondrial inner membrane and CNPase, leads to the assumption that CNPase might be involved in mitochondrial respiration and energy production.
  • 623
  • 24 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Exercise Mitigates Pathological Liver Changes
Exercise attenuates pathological changes in the liver induced by high-fat diets. The underlying mechanisms might be related to Nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2 (NRF2) and mediated by SIRT1/AMPK signaling. 
  • 619
  • 29 Mar 2022
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