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Topic Review
Xenoestrogens and Phytoestrogens in Cancers
According to Global Cancer Statistics 2020, the burden of cancer incidence and mortality is rapidly growing worldwide. The epidemiological features of cancer reflect both the aging and growth of the population and the changes in the prevalence and distribution of the main cancer risk factors, several of which are particularly associated with the environment. Exogenous estrogens, such as synthetic industrial estrogenic compounds (xenoestrogens) and estrogenic molecules from plants (phytoestrogens), are environmental factors that potentially cause various cancers through their interactions with cellular signaling processes involving estrogen signaling pathways.
  • 932
  • 25 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Biology of Circulating Tumor Cells
Tumor cells circulating in the bloodstream of cancer patients are thought to have the potential to reach and settle in new niches and develop metastasis. Thus, their presence, which shows tumor dissemination from the primary site to distant organs, might be an indicator of the disease progression.
  • 931
  • 22 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Stages, Grades and Types of  Bladder Cancer
The bladder is a hollow organ located in the lower abdominal region. The bladder is contiguous with the ureters above, through which urine flows from the kidneys, and the urethra below, which dispels urine from the body. There are four parts to the bladder, the apex or dome, body, fundus, and neck. The apex is the anterosuperior part of the bladder that points towards the abdominal wall. The fundus, or base, is the posteroinferior part of the bladder. The fundus lies on the inferior aspect of the proximal wall while the apex lies on the anterior aspect of the wall, extending towards the pubic symphysis. The body of the bladder is the large area situated between the apex and the fundus. The neck of the bladder is the constricted part of the bladder that leads to the urethra. The upper part of the bladder consists of the apex and body which are above the ureteric orifices. The lower part consists of the fundus, neck, and trigone. The trigone is an inverted triangular-shaped area of space that is made entirely of smooth muscle. Its superolateral angles are formed by the ureteric orifices. The neck lies at the base of the trigone and it is the most inferior point of the bladder.
  • 931
  • 08 Aug 2023
Topic Review
CSCs in Breast Cancer
Unlike other breast cancer subtypes, triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) has no specific targets and is characterized as one of the most aggressive subtypes of breast cancer that disproportionately accounts for the majority of breast cancer-related deaths. Current conventional chemotherapeutics target the bulk tumor population, but not the cancer stem cells (CSCs) that are capable of initiating new tumors to cause disease relapse. Recent studies have identified distinct epithelial-like (E) ALDH+ CSCs, mesenchymal-like (M) CD44+/CD24− CSCs, and hybrid E/M ALDH+/CD44+/CD24− CSCs. These subtypes of CSCs exhibit differential signal pathway regulations, possess plasticity, and respond differently to treatment. As such, co-inhibition of different subtypes of CSCs is key to viable therapy. 
  • 931
  • 20 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Theranostic Applications of Extracellular Vesicles
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are mainly featured as a heterogeneous population of membrane-enclosed, non-replicating, and sub-micron sized structures, which are actively secreted by  wide variety of eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms. In addition, EVs are mediators of communication between cells in physiological and pathological settings, and they transport a diverse array of biomolecules, including lipids, nucleic acids, carbohydrates and proteins. This article discusses the role of EVs in cancer drug resistance and the literature proposing the use of EVs for therapeutic and prognostic purposes in cancer. 
  • 930
  • 14 Jul 2021
Topic Review
Microsatellite Instability in Colorectal Cancers
Microsatellite instability (MSI) is the landmark feature of DNA mismatch repair deficiency, which can be found in 15–20% of all colorectal cancers (CRC). 
  • 930
  • 25 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Immune Checkpoint Blockade in Acute Myeloid Leukemia
Acute myeloid leukemia is an aggressive and very lethal blood tumor. It represents a substantial percentage of leukemia patients, as well as leukemic deaths. Immune checkpoint inhibition (ICI) has emerged as a therapeutic option for acute myeloid leukemia (AML) for patients that suffer from relapsed or high-risk disease, or patients ineligible for standard therapy.
  • 930
  • 04 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Inhibitory Checkpoint Receptors
Inhibitory checkpoint receptors play a critical role in immune homeostasis. In health, the expression of checkpoint receptors is upregulated following the activation of antigen specific T-cells to temper the pro-inflammatory response. However, upon prolonged activation with a persisting antigen, such as chronic viral infections or in cancer, checkpoint expression is maintained, and effector T-cells enter a state of 'exhaustion'. Exhausted T-cells demonstrate a progressively reduced proliferative capacity and the loss of effector T-cell functions including the production of inflammatory cytokines and degranulation. Accordingly, there has been a rapid expansion in therapeutic targeting of these checkpoint receptors to reinvigorate the effector functions of exhausted T-cells.
  • 930
  • 23 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Radiosensitizing Hypoxic Tumour Cells
One of the most difficult barriers encountered when treating the majority of solid tumours is attributed to the scattered microregions within the tumour characterized by the lack of oxygen. This is known as tumour hypoxia. The lack of oxygen supply results in hypoxic microregions scattered throughout the tumour relative to normal tissue. The hypoxic environments within tumours create several cancer treatment barriers. Most notably, all hypoxic cells are resistant to ionizing radiation (IR). The mechanism by which radiation is able to eradicate tumour cells by damaging DNA, resulting in apoptosis and cell death, occurs through the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). However, due to the limited oxygen availability within hypoxic tumour microenvironments, this impedes the efficacy of radiotherapy. Furthermore, normal tissues are unable to withstand increased doses of radiation that compensate for tumour hypoxia. Methods targeting tumour hypoxia through radiosensitizing hypoxic cells include hyperbaric oxygen, hypoxic cell radiosensitizers, hypoxic cytotoxins, and tumour metabolism. As research continues to elucidate the relationship between tumour hypoxia and radiotherapy, novel approaches have been developed.
  • 929
  • 06 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Metabolic Reprogramming in Thyroid Cancer
Reprogramming of metabolism is now recognized a hallmark of carcinogenesis as metabolic changes, such as those related to glucose, glutamine and lipids, are tightly related to the proliferation, invasion, migration, radiosensitivity, and chemosensitivity of several tumors, including thyroid cancer.
  • 929
  • 29 Mar 2022
Topic Review
PyK2-Associated Molecules in Cancer
PyK2 is a member of the proline-rich tyrosine kinase and focal adhesion kinase families and is ubiquitously expressed. PyK2 is mainly activated by stimuli, such as activated Src kinases and intracellular acidic pH. The mechanism of PyK2 activation in cancer cells has been addressed extensively. The acidic milieu is a favorable condition in cancer systems. Various evidence has shown that the activation of PyK2 regulated cancer progression and migration. Thus,  the mechanism of molecular interaction in regulating PyK2 activity in cancer and PyK2-associated strategies against cancer was summarized.
  • 929
  • 14 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Mechanism of Action of the Plagiochilins
Plagiochilin A functions as an inhibitor of the termination phase of cytokinesis: the membrane abscission stage. This unique, innovative mechanism of action, coupled with its marked anticancer action, notably against prostate cancer cells, make plagiochilin A an interesting lead molecule for the development of novel anticancer agents. There are known options to increase its potency, as deduced from structure–activity relationships. The analysis shed light on this family of bryophyte species and the little-known group of bioactive terpenoid plagiochilins. Plagiochilin A and derivatives shall be further exploited for the design of novel anticancer targeting the cytokinesis pathway.
  • 929
  • 24 Mar 2023
Topic Review
Dietary Fatty Acids in Cancer
Colorectal cancer (CRC) is among the major threatening diseases worldwide, being the third most common cancer, and a leading cause of death, with a global incidence expected to increase in the coming years. Enhanced adiposity, particularly visceral fat, is a major risk factor for the development of several tumours, including CRC, and represents an important indicator of incidence, survival, prognosis, recurrence rates, and response to therapy. The obesity-associated low-grade chronic inflammation is thought to be a key determinant in CRC development, with the adipocytes and the adipose tissue (AT) playing a significant role in the integration of diet-related endocrine, metabolic, and inflammatory signals.
  • 928
  • 02 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Cancer Nanotechnology, Global Trends
Nanomaterials are perhaps the most important scientific advancement in the last decade and have revolutionized many segments of society and technology including computers and electronics, engineering, military applications, and many others. There is no more important application benefitting human health than nanomedicine, indeed cancer nanotechnology seeks tfo apply nanoparticles and nanoconstructs to improve cancer detection, diagnosis, imaging, and therapy while reducing toxicity associated with traditional cancer therapy. A great deal of information in this important new cancer nanotechnology emerging sub-discipline has been published.
  • 928
  • 09 Sep 2021
Topic Review
MicroRNA in Gastric Cancer Development
Gastric cancer (GC) is one of the most common and difficult diseases to treat. The study of signaling pathway regulation by microRNA provides information on the mechanisms of GC development and is the basis for biomarker creation. In this study, a circuit of microRNA interactions with signaling pathways was constructed. In most cases, microRNAs in GC regulate the Wnt/b-catenin, PI3K/AKT/mTOR, RAS/RAF/ERK/MAPK, NF-kB, TGF-b, and JAK/STAT pathways. Part of the microRNA acts on several target genes that function in different pathways. This often leads to an intensification of the induced processes. MicroRNAs have also been described that have the opposite effect on different pathways, causing different functional consequences. By acting on several target genes, or genes associated with several pathways, microRNAs can function in a signaling network. The characteristics of microRNAs proposed as candidates for GC biomarkers were analyzed. The currently developed diagnostic and prognostic panels of microRNAs are also considered.
  • 927
  • 18 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Chemotherapy for Oral Cancer
The increasing incidence of resistance to chemotherapeutic agents has become a major issue in the treatment of oral cancer (OC). Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) has attracted a great deal of attention in recent years with regard to its relation to the mechanism of chemotherapy drug resistance. EMT-activating transcription factors (EMT-ATFs), such as Snail, TWIST, and ZEB, can activate several different molecular pathways, e.g., PI3K/AKT, NF-κB, and TGF-β.
  • 927
  • 09 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Designer T and NK Cells in Glioblastoma Immunotherapy
Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most prevalent, aggressive primary brain tumour with a dismal prognosis. Gene editing technologies are a game changer, enabling design of novel molecular-immunological treatments to be used in combination with chemoradiation, to achieve long lasting survival benefits for patients. Designer T and NK cells are a modality within immunotherapy that manipulates receptor-ligand interactions to enhance cells of the immune system to destroy cancer more effectively. Patient’s own immune cells are isolated, genetically modified to improve responses against cancer cells, expanded, and subsequently reintroduced into the individual.
  • 927
  • 29 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Tumor Microenvironment in Regulating Pancreatic Cancer Therapy Resistance
Pancreatic cancer has a notoriously poor prognosis, exhibits persistent drug resistance, and lacks a cure. Unique features of the pancreatic tumor microenvironment (TME) exacerbate tumorigenesis, metastasis, and therapy resistance. Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is a lethal form of pancreatic cancer with an average 5-year survival rate of 11.5% from 2012 to 2018, according to data provided by Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER). Malignant cells rewire the microenvironment. The main cell populations of the PDAC TME consist of pancreatic stellate cells (PSCs), cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), and myeloid cells, as well as regulatory T cells, B cells, and neuronal cells.
  • 927
  • 30 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Clinical Features of Human Papillomavirus-Negative Adenocarcinoma
Cervical cancer is the fourth most common cancer in women. It is the leading cause of female deaths in developing countries. Most of these cervical neoplasms are represented by squamous lesions. Cervical adenocarcinoma causes about a quarter of cervical cancers. In contrast to squamous lesions, cervical glandular disease is HPV-negative in about 15–20% of cases. HPV-negative cervical adenocarcinomas typically present in advanced stages at clinical evaluation, resulting in a poorer prognosis. 
  • 927
  • 08 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Perioperative Systemic Treatment for MIBC
Perioperative systemic treatment is important to improve MIBC prognosis. Current international guidelines recommend cisplatin-based neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NAC) followed by RC in patients with MIBC; adjuvant chemotherapy is also an option for select patients. Recently, owing to the success of immunotherapy in treating metastatic disease, a perioperative immunotherapy-based treatment strategy for MIBC is being extensively investigated.
  • 926
  • 21 Jul 2021
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